{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T04:51:59Z","timestamp":1787892719297,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]],"date-time":"2021-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004590","name":"Helse Midt-Norge","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16\/29014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16\/29014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004590","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is the primary cause of death globally. IHD is associated with the disruption of blood supply to the heart muscles, which often results in myocardial infarction (MI) that further may progress to heart failure (HF). Exosomes are a subgroup of extracellular vesicles that can be secreted by virtually all types of cells, including cardiomyocytes, cardiac fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and stem and progenitor cells. Exosomes represent an important means of cell\u2013cell communication through the transport of proteins, coding and non-coding RNA, and other bioactive molecules. Several studies show that exosomes play an important role in the progression of IHD, including endothelial dysfunction, the development of arterial atherosclerosis, ischemic reperfusion injury, and HF development. Recently, promising data have been shown that designates exosomes as carriers of cardioprotective molecules that enhance the survival of recipient cells undergoing ischemia. In this review, we summarize the functional involvement of exosomes regarding IHD. We also highlight the cardioprotective effects of native and bioengineered exosomes to IHD, as well as the possibility of using exosomes as natural biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases. Lastly, we discuss the opportunities and challenges that need to be addressed before exosomes can be used in clinical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11020269","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T00:49:26Z","timestamp":1613090966000},"page":"269","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Cardiac Exosomes in Ischemic Heart Disease\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"\u00d8ystein","family":"R\u00f8sand","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Norwegian University of Technology and Science (NTNU), 7030 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1804-2578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Morten Andre","family":"H\u00f8ydal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Norwegian University of Technology and Science (NTNU), 7030 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005375","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.118.005375","article-title":"Mortality From Ischemic Heart Disease","volume":"12","author":"Nowbar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2014). Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2014, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Estimates, G.H. (2016). Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000\u20132016, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.11.053","article-title":"The global health and economic burden of hospitalizations for heart failure: Lessons learned from hospitalized heart failure registries","volume":"63","author":"Ambrosy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2003.025270","article-title":"Clinical epidemiology of heart failure","volume":"93","author":"Mosterd","year":"2007","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)02514-7","article-title":"Early thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial infarction: Reappraisal of the golden hour","volume":"348","author":"Boersma","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2013.11.003","article-title":"The mitochondria as a target for cardioprotection in acute myocardial ischemia","volume":"142","author":"Ertracht","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6363(02)00836-2","article-title":"Role of the cardiac Na+\/H+ exchanger during ischemia and reperfusion","volume":"57","author":"Allen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbabio.2007.05.008","article-title":"The role of mitochondria in protection of the heart by preconditioning","volume":"1767","author":"Halestrap","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1281","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00435.2009","article-title":"Role of sarcoplasmic reticulum in mitochondrial permeability transition and cardiomyocyte death during reperfusion","volume":"297","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3070093","article-title":"Mitochondrial non-specific pores remain closed during cardiac ischaemia, but open upon reperfusion","volume":"307","author":"Griffiths","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2780715","article-title":"Calcium-dependent opening of a non-specific pore in the mitochondrial inner membrane is inhibited at pH values below 7. Implications for the protective effect of low pH against chemical and hypoxic cell damage","volume":"278","author":"Halestrap","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2828(03)00043-9","article-title":"The mitochondrial permeability transition pore: Its fundamental role in mediating cell death during ischaemia and reperfusion","volume":"35","author":"Hausenloy","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394309-5.00006-7","article-title":"Cell biology of ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"298","author":"Kalogeris","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int Rev. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra071667","article-title":"Myocardial reperfusion injury","volume":"357","author":"Yellon","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehx393","article-title":"2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)","volume":"39","author":"Ibanez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.87.3.893","article-title":"Regional ischemic \u2018preconditioning\u2019 protects remote virgin myocardium from subsequent sustained coronary occlusion","volume":"87","author":"Przyklenk","year":"1993","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000447","article-title":"Protecting the heart from ischemia\/reperfusion injury: An update on remote ischemic preconditioning and postconditioning","volume":"32","author":"Donato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61296-3","article-title":"Effect of remote ischaemic preconditioning on myocardial injury in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"370","author":"Hausenloy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2017.03.043","article-title":"Remote Ischemic Preconditioning in Cardiac Surgery: Is There a Proven Clinical Benefit?","volume":"31","author":"Maldonado","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2014-306178","article-title":"Effect of remote ischaemic preconditioning on clinical outcomes in patients undergoing cardiac bypass surgery: A randomised controlled clinical trial","volume":"101","author":"Candilio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"H1306","article-title":"Four brief periods of myocardial ischemia cause no cumulative ATP loss or necrosis","volume":"251","author":"Reimer","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.4330\/wjc.v3.i6.186","article-title":"Ischemia\/reperfusion injury and cardioprotective mechanisms: Role of mitochondria and reactive oxygen species","volume":"3","author":"Perrelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.114.302751","article-title":"Remote ischemic preconditioning preserves mitochondrial function and influences myocardial microRNA expression in atrial myocardium during coronary bypass surgery","volume":"114","author":"Slagsvold","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00009.2003","article-title":"Preconditioning the myocardium: From cellular physiology to clinical cardiology","volume":"83","author":"Yellon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7102","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.15341","article-title":"Mitochondrial ion channels as targets for cardioprotection","volume":"24","author":"Hausenloy","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heusch, G. (2020). Myocardial ischaemia\u2013reperfusion injury and cardioprotection in perspective. Nat. Rev. Cardiol.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-0403-y"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2448","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2012.125","article-title":"The updated biology of hypoxia-inducible factor","volume":"31","author":"Greer","year":"2012","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0000000000001280","article-title":"Role of exosomes induced by remote ischemic preconditioning in neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.29832","article-title":"Delayed remote ischemic preconditioning confersrenoprotection against septic acute kidney injury via exosomal miR-21","volume":"9","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5675","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.02724","article-title":"Protein kinase B\/Akt at a glance","volume":"118","author":"Fayard","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1006\/excr.2000.4836","article-title":"Serine\/threonine protein kinases and apoptosis","volume":"256","author":"Cross","year":"2000","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20100466","article-title":"Remote preconditioning provides potent cardioprotection via PI3K\/Akt activation and is associated with nuclear accumulation of \u03b2-catenin","volume":"120","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Sci. (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1582-4934.2011.01491.x","article-title":"The Akt1 isoform is an essential mediator of ischaemic preconditioning","volume":"16","author":"Kunuthur","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.104.3.330","article-title":"Akt activation preserves cardiac function and prevents injury after transient cardiac ischemia in vivo","volume":"104","author":"Matsui","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10557-011-6364-y","article-title":"Investigating the signal transduction pathways underlying remote ischemic conditioning in the porcine heart","volume":"26","author":"Hausenloy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)80405-5","article-title":"Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell-intrinsic death machinery","volume":"91","author":"Datta","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI19906","article-title":"Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta mediates convergence of protection signaling to inhibit the mitochondrial permeability transition pore","volume":"113","author":"Juhaszova","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2004.09.014","article-title":"Nitric oxide: A signaling molecule against mitochondrial permeability transition- and pH-dependent cell death after reperfusion","volume":"37","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.108.175877","article-title":"Protein kinase B\/Akt phosphorylates and inhibits the cardiac Na+\/H+ exchanger NHE1","volume":"103","author":"Snabaitis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2139","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00063.2012","article-title":"The role of neuregulin\/ErbB2\/ErbB4 signaling in the heart with special focus on effects on cardiomyocyte proliferation","volume":"302","author":"Wadugu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2016.12.009","article-title":"Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress by neuregulin-1 protects against myocardial ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"88","author":"Fang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36758","DOI":"10.1038\/srep36758","article-title":"Increased plasma VEGF levels following ischemic preconditioning are associated with downregulation of miRNA-762 and miR-3072-5p","volume":"6","author":"Ueno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-018-0674-1","article-title":"Remote ischemic preconditioning fails to reduce infarct size in the Zucker fatty rat model of type-2 diabetes: Role of defective humoral communication","volume":"113","author":"Wider","year":"2018","journal-title":"Basic Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.2165\/11587190-000000000-00000","article-title":"Efficacy of Cardioprotective \u2018Conditioning\u2019 Strategies in Aging and Diabetic Cohorts","volume":"28","author":"Przyklenk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drugs Aging"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2840-11-67","article-title":"Effects of diabetes on myocardial infarct size and cardioprotection by preconditioning and postconditioning","volume":"11","author":"Miki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvx118","article-title":"Exosomes secreted by cardiomyocytes subjected to ischaemia promote cardiac angiogenesis","volume":"113","author":"Laundos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molica, F., Figueroa, X.F., Kwak, B.R., Isakson, B.E., and Gibbins, J.M. (2018). Connexins and Pannexins in Vascular Function and Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19061663"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-101512-122326","article-title":"Biogenesis, secretion, and intercellular interactions of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles","volume":"30","author":"Colombo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2009.03.007","article-title":"Exosomes\u2013vesicular carriers for intercellular communication","volume":"21","author":"Simons","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2744(77)90078-X","article-title":"Restoration of detergent-inactivated adenosine triphosphatase activity of human prostatic fluid with concanavalin A","volume":"483","author":"Ronquist","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA) Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9412","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)48095-7","article-title":"Vesicle formation during reticulocyte maturation. Association of plasma membrane activities with released vesicles (exosomes)","volume":"262","author":"Johnstone","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2014.06.011","article-title":"Reproducibility and efficiency of serum-derived exosome extraction methods","volume":"47","author":"Caradec","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02723","article-title":"Large Extracellular Vesicles: Have We Found the Holy Grail of Inflammation?","volume":"9","author":"Slomka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-017-2595-9","article-title":"Current knowledge on exosome biogenesis and release","volume":"75","author":"Hessvik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3481","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2011.286","article-title":"Endosome maturation","volume":"30","author":"Huotari","year":"2011","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maisano, D., Mimmi, S., Russo, R., Fioravanti, A., Fiume, G., Vecchio, E., Nistico, N., Quinto, I., and Iaccino, E. (2020). Uncovering the Exosomes Diversity: A Window of Opportunity for Tumor Progression Monitoring. Pharmaceuticals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph13080180"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1002\/mas.21420","article-title":"Proteomics of extracellular vesicles: Exosomes and ectosomes","volume":"34","author":"Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mass Spectrom. Rev."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2013.10.004","article-title":"Exosomes as new vesicular lipid transporters involved in cell-cell communication and various pathophysiologies","volume":"1841","author":"Record","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1002\/cbin.10301","article-title":"Long non-coding RNAs with low expression levels in cells are enriched in secreted exosomes","volume":"38","author":"Gezer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12857","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.12857","article-title":"Exosome biogenesis, secretion and function of exosomal miRNAs in skeletal muscle myogenesis","volume":"53","author":"Yue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a016766","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a016766","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of the membrane sculpting ESCRT pathway","volume":"5","author":"Henne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"5553","article-title":"Analysis of ESCRT functions in exosome biogenesis, composition and secretion highlights the heterogeneity of extracellular vesicles","volume":"126","author":"Colombo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.110.16.1867","article-title":"Aggregation reroutes molecules from a recycling to a vesicle-mediated secretion pathway during reticulocyte maturation","volume":"110","author":"Vidal","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2017.08.022","article-title":"Biogenesis and function of ESCRT-dependent extracellular vesicles","volume":"74","author":"Juan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5785436","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5785436","article-title":"Potential Role of Exosomes in Mending a Broken Heart: Nanoshuttles Propelling Future Clinical Therapeutics Forward","volume":"2017","author":"Dougherty","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.113.300636","article-title":"Exosomes: Nanoparticles involved in cardioprotection?","volume":"114","author":"Yellon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-014-9469-0","article-title":"Exosome and its roles in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H3052","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.01355.2006","article-title":"HSP60 trafficking in adult cardiac myocytes: Role of the exosomal pathway","volume":"292","author":"Gupta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"1064","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte progenitor cell-derived exosomes stimulate migration of endothelial cells","volume":"14","author":"Vrijsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genneb\u00e4ck, N., Hellman, U., Malm, L., Larsson, G., Ronquist, G., Waldenstr\u00f6m, A., and M\u00f6rner, S. (2013). Growth factor stimulation of cardiomyocytes induces changes in the transcriptional contents of secreted exosomes. J. Extracell Vesicles, 2.","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v2i0.20167"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2012.10.002","article-title":"Mechanism of TNF-\u03b1 autocrine effects in hypoxic cardiomyocytes: Initiated by hypoxia inducible factor 1\u03b1, presented by exosomes","volume":"53","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Datta, R., Bansal, T., Rana, S., Datta, K., Datta Chaudhuri, R., Chawla-Sarkar, M., and Sarkar, S. (2017). Myocyte-Derived Hsp90 Modulates Collagen Upregulation via Biphasic Activation of STAT-3 in Fibroblasts during Cardiac Hypertrophy. Mol. Cell. Biol., 37.","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.00611-16"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvv260","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte exosomes regulate glycolytic flux in endothelium by direct transfer of GLUT transporters and glycolytic enzymes","volume":"109","author":"Garcia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-019-1297-7","article-title":"Differences in the cargos and functions of exosomes derived from six cardiac cell types: A systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem. Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellin, G., Gardin, C., Ferroni, L., Chachques, J.C., Rogante, M., Mitre\u010di\u0107, D., Ferrari, R., and Zavan, B. (2019). Exosome in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Complex World Full of Hope. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8020166"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2019.00318","article-title":"Cardiac Fibroblasts and Cardiac Fibrosis: Precise Role of Exosomes","volume":"7","author":"Ranjan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2836","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.7b00144","article-title":"Hypoxia-Induced Changes in the Fibroblast Secretome, Exosome, and Whole-Cell Proteome Using Cultured, Cardiac-Derived Cells Isolated from Neonatal Mice","volume":"16","author":"Cosme","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2014.01.005","article-title":"Cardiac fibroblasts protect cardiomyocytes against lethal ischemia-reperfusion injury","volume":"68","author":"Abrial","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvy231","article-title":"microRNA-423-3p exosomes derived from cardiac fibroblasts mediates the cardioprotective effects of ischaemic post-conditioning","volume":"115","author":"Luo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-57613-8_4","article-title":"Endothelial Cells","volume":"1003","author":"Sturtzel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2972","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehu153","article-title":"Association of circulating endothelial microparticles with cardiometabolic risk factors in the Framingham Heart Study","volume":"35","author":"Amabile","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2441","article-title":"Atheroprotective communication between endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells through miRNAs","volume":"14","author":"Hergenreider","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvy055","article-title":"Cardioprotection by cardiac progenitor cell-secreted exosomes: Role of pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A","volume":"114","author":"Barile","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1097\/CRD.0000000000000173","article-title":"Cardiosphere-Derived Cells and Ischemic Heart Failure","volume":"26","author":"Ashur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2014.04.006","article-title":"Exosomes as critical agents of cardiac regeneration triggered by cell therapy","volume":"2","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.304360","article-title":"Identification of therapeutic covariant microRNA clusters in hypoxia-treated cardiac progenitor cell exosomes using systems biology","volume":"116","author":"Gray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02871","article-title":"The functions of animal microRNAs","volume":"431","author":"Ambros","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1038\/aps.2018.30","article-title":"miRNAS in cardiovascular diseases: Potential biomarkers, therapeutic targets and challenges","volume":"39","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-014-0423-z","article-title":"MicroRNA-144 is a circulating effector of remote ischemic preconditioning","volume":"109","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Basic Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.984","article-title":"Prognostic value of circulating microRNAs on heart failure-related morbidity and mortality in two large diverse cohorts of general heart failure patients","volume":"20","author":"Lanfear","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H216","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00812.2013","article-title":"MicroRNAs associated with ischemia-reperfusion injury and cardioprotection by ischemic pre-and postconditioning: ProtectomiRs","volume":"307","author":"Varga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.113.301209","article-title":"Circulating p53-responsive microRNAs are predictive indicators of heart failure after acute myocardial infarction","volume":"113","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2014.05.001","article-title":"Cardiomyocytes mediate anti-angiogenesis in type 2 diabetic rats through the exosomal transfer of miR-320 into endothelial cells","volume":"74","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.12589","article-title":"Cardiosome mediated regulation of MMP9 in diabetic heart: Role of mir29b and mir455 in exercise","volume":"19","author":"Chaturvedi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H928","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00602.2017","article-title":"Myocardial infarction-induced microRNA-enriched exosomes contribute to cardiac Nrf2 dysregulation in chronic heart failure","volume":"314","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"4350","article-title":"Exosomes derived from cardiomyocytes promote cardiac fibrosis via myocyte-fibroblast cross-talk","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI70577","article-title":"Cardiac fibroblast-derived microRNA passenger strand-enriched exosomes mediate cardiomyocyte hypertrophy","volume":"124","author":"Bang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.332","article-title":"Signature of circulating microRNAs in patients with acute heart failure","volume":"18","author":"Ovchinnikova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001534","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCGENETICS.116.001534","article-title":"The Long Noncoding RNA Landscape of the Ischemic Human Left Ventricle","volume":"10","author":"Saddic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kornienko, A.E., Guenzl, P.M., Barlow, D.P., and Pauler, F.M. (2013). Gene regulation by the act of long non-coding RNA transcription. BMC Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-11-59"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haemmig, S., Simion, V., Yang, D., Deng, Y., and Feinberg, M.W. (2017). Long noncoding RNAs in cardiovascular disease, diagnosis, and therapy. Curr. Opin. Cardiol., 32.","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000454"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-016-0926-5","article-title":"Long noncoding RNA dysregulation in ischemic heart failure","volume":"14","author":"Greco","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22384","DOI":"10.1038\/srep22384","article-title":"Reciprocal Changes of Circulating Long Non-Coding RNAs ZFAS1 and CDR1AS Predict Acute Myocardial Infarction","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.312117","article-title":"LncRNA ZFAS1 as a SERCA2a Inhibitor to Cause Intracellular Ca2+ Overload and Contractile Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of Myocardial Infarction","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1159\/000485588","article-title":"Circulating Long Noncoding RNA HOTAIR is an Essential Mediator of Acute Myocardial Infarction","volume":"44","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21973","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.28760","article-title":"A novel long noncoding RNA FAF inhibits apoptosis via upregulating FGF9 through PI3K\/AKT signaling pathway in ischemia\u2013hypoxia cardiomyocytes","volume":"234","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37982","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37982","article-title":"Circular RNAs are down-regulated in KRAS mutant colon cancer cells and can be transferred to exosomes","volume":"6","author":"Dou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1159\/000445617","article-title":"Microarray Expression Profile of Circular RNAs in Heart Tissue of Mice with Myocardial Infarction-Induced Heart Failure","volume":"39","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2020.00212","article-title":"Circular RNA-Expression Profiling Reveals a Potential Role of Hsa_circ_0097435 in Heart Failure via Sponging Multiple MicroRNAs","volume":"11","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-8-34","article-title":"Biomarkers in acute myocardial infarction","volume":"8","author":"Chan","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2335","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.482570","article-title":"Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"113","author":"Vasan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.5847\/wjem.j.issn.1920-8642.2014.03.004","article-title":"Comparison of plasma microRNA-1 and cardiac troponin T in early diagnosis of patients with acute myocardial infarction","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199610313351802","article-title":"Cardiac-specific troponin I levels to predict the risk of mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes","volume":"335","author":"Antman","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehq013","article-title":"Circulating microRNA: A novel potential biomarker for early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction in humans","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.6061\/clinics\/2013(01)OA12","article-title":"Comparing the diagnostic values of circulating microRNAs and cardiac troponin T in patients with acute myocardial infarction","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clinics (Sao Paulo)"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gidlof, O., Smith, J.G., Miyazu, K., Gilje, P., Spencer, A., Blomquist, S., and Erlinge, D. (2013). Circulating cardio-enriched microRNAs are associated with long-term prognosis following myocardial infarction. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2261-13-12"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1621436114","article-title":"p53 regulates the cardiac transcriptome","volume":"114","author":"Mak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5588","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.27384","article-title":"Circular RNA in cardiovascular disease","volume":"234","author":"Altesha","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2628","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M115.055731","article-title":"Plasma-derived Extracellular Vesicles Contain Predictive Biomarkers and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Myocardial Ischemic (MI) Injury","volume":"15","author":"Cheow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Proteom."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Jong, O.G., Verhaar, M.C., Chen, Y., Vader, P., Gremmels, H., Posthuma, G., Schiffelers, R.M., Gucek, M., and van Balkom, B.W. (2012). Cellular stress conditions are reflected in the protein and RNA content of endothelial cell-derived exosomes. J. Extracell Vesicles, 1.","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v1i0.18396"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.015687","article-title":"Circulating Exosomes Induced by Cardiac Pressure Overload Contain Functional Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptors","volume":"131","author":"Pironti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2016.02.001","article-title":"Exosomes as therapeutic drug carriers and delivery vehicles across biological membranes: Current perspectives and future challenges","volume":"6","author":"Ha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6917","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S264498","article-title":"Exosome: A Review of Its Classification, Isolation Techniques, Storage, Diagnostic and Targeted Therapy Applications","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1153124","article-title":"Ceramide triggers budding of exosome vesicles into multivesicular endosomes","volume":"319","author":"Trajkovic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2502","article-title":"Syndecan-syntenin-ALIX regulates the biogenesis of exosomes","volume":"14","author":"Baietti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"457","article-title":"Membrane-associated Hsp72 from tumor-derived exosomes mediates STAT3-dependent immunosuppressive function of mouse and human myeloid-derived suppressor cells","volume":"120","author":"Chalmin","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2014.12.043","article-title":"Exosomes secreted from GATA-4 overexpressing mesenchymal stem cells serve as a reservoir of anti-apoptotic microRNAs for cardioprotection","volume":"182","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Y., Huang, W., Wani, M., Yu, X., and Ashraf, M. (2014). Ischemic Preconditioning Potentiates the Protective Effect of Stem Cells through Secretion of Exosomes by Targeting Mecp2 via miR-22. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0088685"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scr.2013.01.002","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes increase ATP levels, decrease oxidative stress and activate PI3K\/Akt pathway to enhance myocardial viability and prevent adverse remodeling after myocardial ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"10","author":"Arslan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venkat, P., Cui, C., Chen, Z., Chopp, M., Zacharek, A., Landschoot-Ward, J., Culmone, L., Yang, X.-P., Xu, J., and Chen, J. (2020). CD133+Exosome Treatment Improves Cardiac Function after Stroke in Type 2 Diabetic Mice. Transl. Stroke Res.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12975-020-00807-y"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"201","article-title":"Exosomes secreted by cardiosphere-derived cells reduce scarring, attenuate adverse remodelling, and improve function in acute and chronic porcine myocardial infarction","volume":"38","author":"Gallet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2018.01.023","article-title":"Exosome-Mediated Benefits of Cell Therapy in Mouse and Human Models of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"10","author":"Aminzadeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dougherty, J.A., Patel, N., Kumar, N., Rao, S.G., Angelos, M.G., Singh, H., Cai, C., and Khan, M. (2020). Human Cardiac Progenitor Cells Enhance Exosome Release and Promote Angiogenesis Under Physoxia. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00130"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130676","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20130676","article-title":"Defining normoxia, physoxia and hypoxia in tumours-implications for treatment response","volume":"87","author":"McKeown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-019-03545-4","article-title":"Exosomes: Cell-created drug delivery systems","volume":"459","author":"Familtseva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2019.01.001","article-title":"Improved Loading of Plasma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles to Encapsulate Antitumor miRNAs","volume":"13","author":"Pomatto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241-e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2016.01.028","article-title":"PLK-1 Silencing in Bladder Cancer by siRNA Delivered With Exosomes","volume":"91","author":"Greco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.06.024","article-title":"RNAi delivery by exosome-mimetic nanovesicles\u2013Implications for targeting c-Myc in cancer","volume":"102","author":"Lunavat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1807","article-title":"Delivery of siRNA to the mouse brain by systemic injection of targeted exosomes","volume":"29","author":"Seow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2013.08.014","article-title":"Electroporation-induced siRNA precipitation obscures the efficiency of siRNA loading into extracellular vesicles","volume":"172","author":"Kooijmans","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1433","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1418401112","article-title":"Differential fates of biomolecules delivered to target cells via extracellular vesicles","volume":"112","author":"Kanada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.17092","article-title":"Interleukin 3-receptor targeted exosomes inhibit in vitro and in vivo Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia cell growth","volume":"7","author":"Bellavia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2015.10.012","article-title":"Development of exosome-encapsulated paclitaxel to overcome MDR in cancer cells","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.5662\/wjm.v3.i4.39","article-title":"Sonoporation: Gene transfer using ultrasound","volume":"3","author":"Tomizawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s12195-016-0457-4","article-title":"Oncogene Knockdown via Active Loading of Small RNAs into Extracellular Vesicles by Sonication","volume":"9","author":"Lamichhane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2359","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2016-0192","article-title":"Elucidating diversity of exosomes: Biophysical and molecular characterization methods","volume":"11","author":"Khatun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.18133","article-title":"Progress in Exosome Isolation Techniques","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ludwig, N., Whiteside, T.L., and Reichert, T.E. (2019). Challenges in Exosome Isolation and Analysis in Health and Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20194684"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1101\/pdb.top074476","article-title":"Strategies for isolation of exosomes","volume":"2015","author":"Zeringer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3753-0_17","article-title":"Cardiac Myocyte Exosome Isolation","volume":"1448","author":"Malik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-017-0730-8","article-title":"Monitoring multiple myeloma by idiotype-specific peptide binders of tumor-derived exosomes","volume":"16","author":"Iaccino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.310752","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Disease: Potential Applications in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Epidemiology","volume":"120","author":"Jansen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.309681","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Angiogenesis","volume":"120","author":"Todorova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2010.06.006","article-title":"Exosomes: Extracellular organelles important in intercellular communication","volume":"73","author":"Mathivanan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2020.1748758","article-title":"Prospects and challenges of extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery system: Considering cell source","volume":"27","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartjes, T.A., Mytnyk, S., Jenster, G.W., van Steijn, V., and van Royen, M.E. (2019). Extracellular Vesicle Quantification and Characterization: Common Methods and Emerging Approaches. Bioengineering, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering6010007"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6728-5_4","article-title":"Imaging and Quantification of Extracellular Vesicles by Transmission Electron Microscopy","volume":"1545","author":"Linares","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2011.04.003","article-title":"Sizing and phenotyping of cellular vesicles using Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Dragovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034006","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/28\/3\/034006","article-title":"Dimensional characterization of extracellular vesicles using atomic force microscopy","volume":"28","author":"Sebaihi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.104","article-title":"Atomic force microscopy of biological samples","volume":"2","author":"Allison","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s12551-016-0218-6","article-title":"Dynamic light scattering: A practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences","volume":"8","author":"Stetefeld","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biophys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvx211","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in diagnostics and therapy of the ischaemic heart: Position Paper from the Working Group on Cellular Biology of the Heart of the European Society of Cardiology","volume":"114","author":"Sluijter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2016.12.022","article-title":"Human Pericardial Fluid Contains Exosomes Enriched with Cardiovascular-Expressed MicroRNAs and Promotes Therapeutic Angiogenesis","volume":"25","author":"Beltrami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shelke, G.V., L\u00e4sser, C., Gho, Y.S., and L\u00f6tvall, J. (2014). Importance of exosome depletion protocols to eliminate functional and RNA-containing extracellular vesicles from fetal bovine serum. J. Extracell Vesicles, 3.","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v3.24783"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01049","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte-Derived Exosomes: Biological Functions and Potential Therapeutic Implications","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcm.2018.10.010","article-title":"The therapeutic and diagnostic role of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"29","author":"Zamani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2321","DOI":"10.1021\/nn506538f","article-title":"Acoustic purification of extracellular microvesicles","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Nano"}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/11\/2\/269\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:22:14Z","timestamp":1760160134000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/11\/2\/269"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]},"references-count":168,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics11020269"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics11020269","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]}}}