{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T13:07:39Z","timestamp":1773839259487,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]],"date-time":"2021-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003710","name":"Korea Health Industry Development Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HI19C0642"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI19C0642"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003710","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents an active locomotion capsule endoscope system with 5D position sensing and real-time automated polyp detection for small-bowel and colon applications. An electromagnetic actuation system (EMA) consisting of stationary electromagnets is utilized to remotely control a magnetic capsule endoscope with multi-degree-of-freedom locomotion. For position sensing, an electronic system using a magnetic sensor array is built to track the position and orientation of the magnetic capsule during movement. The system is integrated with a deep learning model, named YOLOv3, which can automatically identify colorectal polyps in real-time with an average precision of 85%. The feasibility of the proposed method concerning active locomotion and localization is validated and demonstrated through in vitro experiments in a phantom duodenum. This study provides a high-potential solution for automatic diagnostics of the bowel and colon using an active locomotion capsule endoscope, which can be applied for a clinical site in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11101878","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]],"date-time":"2021-10-12T08:09:32Z","timestamp":1634026172000},"page":"1878","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Automated Bowel Polyp Detection Based on Actively Controlled Capsule Endoscopy: Feasibility Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6816-339X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manh Cuong","family":"Hoang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1260-3610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kim Tien","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Institute of Medical Microrobotics, Gwangju 61011, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jayoung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Institute of Medical Microrobotics, Gwangju 61011, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jong-Oh","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Institute of Medical Microrobotics, Gwangju 61011, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4532-2006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chang-Sei","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s002689910067","article-title":"Tumors of the small intestine","volume":"24","author":"Blanchard","year":"2000","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.6004\/jnccn.2019.7344","article-title":"Small bowel adenocarcinoma: Etiology, presentation, and molecular alterations","volume":"17","author":"Pedersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Natl. Compr. Cancer Netw."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, July 21). Cancer of the Small Intestine\u2014Cancer Stat Facts, Available online: https:\/\/seer.cancer.gov\/statfacts\/html\/smint.html."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00053158","article-title":"Risk factors for small intestine cancer","volume":"4","author":"Chow","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16262","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2018.36.15_suppl.e16262","article-title":"NIncidence, treatment and survival outcomes of small bowel adenocarcinomas: A National Cancer Database (NCDB) analysis","volume":"36","author":"Akce","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2013.06.026","article-title":"Wireless capsule endoscopy","volume":"78","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3726","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v19.i24.3726","article-title":"Small-bowel capsule endoscopy: A ten-point contemporary review","volume":"19","author":"Koulaouzidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.5946\/ce.2015.48.5.399","article-title":"Indications for detection, completion, and retention rates of small bowel capsule endoscopy based on the 10-year data from the Korean capsule endoscopy registry","volume":"48","author":"Lim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1746.2010.06292.x","article-title":"Capsule endoscopy in small bowel tumors: A multicenter Korean study","volume":"25","author":"Cheung","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2011.09.030","article-title":"Blinded nonrandomized comparative study of gastric examination with a magnetically guided capsule endoscope and standard videoendoscope","volume":"75","author":"Rey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"AB122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2014.02.059","article-title":"219 Magnet Assisted Capsule Endoscopy (MACE) in the Upper GI Tract Is Feasible: First Human Series Using the Novel Mirocam-Navi System","volume":"79","author":"Rahman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2010.01.064","article-title":"Remote magnetic manipulation of a wireless capsule endoscope in the esophagus and stomach of humans (with videos)","volume":"71","author":"Swain","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93364","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2927894","article-title":"Untethered Robotic Motion and Rotating Blade Mechanism for Actively Locomotive Biopsy Capsule Endoscope","volume":"7","author":"Hoang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2283369","article-title":"Biopsy using a magnetic capsule endoscope carrying, releasing, and retrieving untethered microgrippers","volume":"61","author":"Yim","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"041009","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4025185","article-title":"Magnetic Torsion Spring Mechanism for a Wireless Biopsy Capsule","volume":"7","author":"Simi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031004","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4007100","article-title":"A Robotic Biopsy Device for Capsule Endoscopy","volume":"6","author":"Kong","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoang, M.C., Le, V.H., Nguyen, K.T., van Nguyen, D., Kim, J., Choi, E., Bang, S., Kang, B., Park, J.O., and Kim, C.S. (2020). A robotic biopsy endoscope with magnetic 5-DOF locomotion and a retractable biopsy punch. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11010098"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoang, M.C., Le, V.H., Kim, J., Choi, E., Kang, B., Park, J.O., and Kim, C.S. (2019). A wireless tattooing capsule endoscope using external electromagnetic actuation and chemical reaction pressure. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219740"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2019.102259","article-title":"A micro-tattooing device for capsule endoscope using a Wood\u2019s metal triggering mechanism","volume":"62","author":"Joe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-019-0240-0","article-title":"Medical Microrobot\u2014A Drug Delivery Capsule Endoscope with Active Locomotion and Drug Release Mechanism: Proof of Concept","volume":"18","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2012.2235077","article-title":"Magnetically actuated soft capsule with the multimodal drug release function","volume":"18","author":"Yim","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2012.2228647","article-title":"Wireless capsule endoscope for targeted drug delivery: Mechanics and design considerations","volume":"60","author":"Woods","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2013.12.007","article-title":"A review of drug delivery systems for capsule endoscopy","volume":"71","author":"Munoz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7752","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i24.7752","article-title":"Capsule endoscopy: Current practice and future directions","volume":"20","author":"Hale","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2021.3123218","article-title":"Multipoint Simultaneous Tracking of Wireless Capsule Endoscope Using Magnetic Sensor Array","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2018.2885218","article-title":"A Simultaneous Calibration Method for Magnetic Robot Localization and Actuation Systems","volume":"35","author":"Son","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"Magnetic Tracking of Wireless Capsule Endoscope in Mobile Setup Based on Differential Signals","volume":"70","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141159","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3012533","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Localization of a Robotic Capsule Endoscope Using Magnetoquasistatic Field","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s10776-012-0193-1","article-title":"Accuracy of RSS-based RF localization in multi-capsule endoscopy","volume":"19","author":"Ye","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Wirel. Inf. Netw."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Zhu, Y., Mo, T., Hou, J., and Rong, G. (2010, January 7\u20139). Design and implementation of 3D positioning algorithms based on RF signal radiation patterns for in vivo micro-robot. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Body Sensor Networks, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/BSN.2010.54"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2017.2697950","article-title":"Wireless Capsule Gastrointestinal Endoscopy: Direction-of-Arrival Estimation Based Localization Survey","volume":"10","author":"Dey","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3819","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2342720","article-title":"DOA-based endoscopy capsule localization and orientation estimation via unscented kalman filter","volume":"14","author":"Goh","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2019.1553616","article-title":"Optimizing lesion detection in small bowel capsule endoscopy and beyond: From present problems to future solutions","volume":"13","author":"Vasilakakis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2011.2175445","article-title":"Computer-aided decision support systems for endoscopy in the gastrointestinal tract: A review","volume":"4","author":"Liedlgruber","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, X., and Meng, M.Q.H. (2017, January 11\u201315). Gastrointestinal bleeding detection in wireless capsule endoscopy images using handcrafted and CNN features. Proceedings of the 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2017.8037526"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1002\/acm2.12662","article-title":"Bleeding detection in wireless capsule endoscopy videos\u2014Color versus texture features","volume":"20","author":"Pogorelov","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Clin. Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-014-0025-1","article-title":"Automated bleeding detection in capsule endoscopy videos using statistical features and region growing","volume":"38","author":"Sainju","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2381050296","article-title":"Crohn Disease of the Small Bowel: Preliminary Comparison among CT Enterography, Capsule Endoscopy, Small-Bowel Follow-through, and Ileoscopy","volume":"238","author":"Hara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600095","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.600095","article-title":"Characterization of Mucosal Lesions in Crohn\u2019s Disease Scored With Capsule Endoscopy: A Systematic Review","volume":"7","author":"Serracarbasa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8379","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65387-1","article-title":"Real-time detection of colon polyps during colonoscopy using deep learning: Systematic validation with four independent datasets","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2015.2395429","article-title":"Improved Bag of Feature for Automatic Polyp Detection in Wireless Capsule Endoscopy Images","volume":"13","author":"Yuan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2012.03.029","article-title":"Automatic polyp detection for wireless capsule endoscopy images","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2020.02.123","article-title":"Deep Neural Networks approaches for detecting and classifying colorectal polyps","volume":"423","author":"Iglesias","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3040","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2019.2917298","article-title":"Independent Electromagnetic Field Control for Practical Approach to Actively Locomotive Wireless Capsule Endoscope","volume":"51","author":"Hoang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Redmon, J., and Farhadi, A. (2018). YOLOv3: An Incremental Improvement. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2021.104519","article-title":"A robust real-time deep learning based automatic polyp detection system","volume":"134","author":"Pacal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2018.05.026","article-title":"Polyp detection during colonoscopy using a regression-based convolutional neural network with a tracker","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2017.2664042","article-title":"Comparative Validation of Polyp Detection Methods in Video Colonoscopy: Results From the MICCAI 2015 Endoscopic Vision Challenge","volume":"36","author":"Bernal","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Accoto, D., Stefanini, C., Phee, L., Arena, A., Pernorio, G., Menciassi, A., Carrozza, M.C., and Dario, P. (2001, January 3\u20137). Measurement of the frictional properties of the gastrointestinal tract. Proceedings of the World Tribology Congress, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Wang, X., and Meng, M.Q.H. (2006, January 20\u201322). Study of frictional properties of the small intestine for design of active capsule endoscope. Proceedings of the The First IEEE\/RAS-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob 2006), Pisa, Italy."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s11249-006-9073-0","article-title":"Experimental investigation of frictional and viscoelastic properties of intestine for microendoscope application","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tribol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2004.01.047","article-title":"Absence of harmful effects of magnetic resonance exposure at 1.5 T in utero during the third trimester of pregnancy: A follow-up study","volume":"22","author":"Kok","year":"2004","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/11\/10\/1878\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:11:59Z","timestamp":1760166719000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/11\/10\/1878"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics11101878"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics11101878","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]}}}