{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:38:40Z","timestamp":1787027920979,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]],"date-time":"2022-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658275200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Desquamative gingivitis (DG) is a clinical term that describes erythema, desquamation and erosions of the gingiva, of various etiologies. Although the clinical aspect is not specific for a certain disease, an accurate diagnosis of the underlying disorder is necessary because the disease course, prognosis and treatment vary according to the cause. DG may inflict significant oral discomfort, which is why patients typically present to the dentist for a first consultation, rendering it important for these specialists to be informed about this condition. Our paper aims to review the ethiopatogenesis and diagnostic approach of DG, focusing on the most common underlying disorders (autoimmune bullous dermatoses and lichen planus) and on the management of these patients. Potential etiological agents leading to an inflammatory immune response in the oral mucosa and DG appearance include genetic predisposition, metabolic, neuropsychiatric, infectious factors, medication, dental materials, graft-versus-host reaction and autoimmunity. A thorough anamnesis, a careful clinical examination, paraclinical explorations including histopathological exam and direct immunofluorescence are necessary to formulate an appropriate diagnosis. Proper and prompt management of these patients lead to a better prognosis and improved quality of life, and must include management in the dental office with sanitizing the oral cavity, instructing the patient for rigorous oral hygiene, periodic follow-up for bacterial plaque detection and removal, as well as topical and systemic therapy depending on the underlying disorder, based on treatment algorithms. A multidisciplinary approach for the diagnosis and follow-up of DG in the context of pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, cicatricial pemhigoid or lichen planus is necessary, including consultations with dermatologists, oral medicine specialists and dentists.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12071754","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]],"date-time":"2022-07-20T11:22:24Z","timestamp":1658316144000},"page":"1754","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Desquamative Gingivitis in the Context of Autoimmune Bullous Dermatoses and Lichen Planus\u2014Challenges in the Diagnosis and Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Ana Maria","family":"Sciuca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Medicine, Oral Dermatology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9838-836X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela Paula","family":"Toader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Medicine, Oral Dermatology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen Gabriela","family":"Stelea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Surgery, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4207-5337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George Alexandru","family":"Maftei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Medicine, Oral Dermatology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oana Elena","family":"Ciurcanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Surgery, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ovidiu Mihail","family":"Stefanescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Surgery, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bianca-Andreea","family":"Onofrei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Medicine, Oral Dermatology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristina","family":"Popa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Oral Medicine, Oral Dermatology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"331","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis-A clinicopathological review","volume":"44","author":"Tofan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Health Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.15713\/ins.jcri.258","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: Does the gingiva tell you more than what meets the eye? A comprehensive review","volume":"6","author":"Paul","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Adv. Clin. Res. Insights"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1601-0825.2007.01420.x","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: Retrospective analysis of disease associations of a large cohort","volume":"14","author":"Leao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oral Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.25259\/IJDVL_130_20","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis in dermatological disorders","volume":"87","author":"Ramesh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.4103\/INJO.INJO_4_21","article-title":"Oral lichenoid reaction to dental amalgam and its association with desquamative gingivitis \u201ca diagnostic conundrum\u201d: A case report","volume":"9","author":"Pande","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Care Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martu, M.-A., Maftei, G.-A., Luchian, I., Stefanescu, O.M., Scutariu, M.M., and Solomon, S.M. (2021). The Effect of Acknowledged and Novel Anti-Rheumatic Therapies on Periodontal Tissues\u2014A Narrative Review. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14121209"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12263","article-title":"Oral autoimmune vesicobullous diseases: Classification, clinical presentations, molecular mechanisms, diagnostic algorithms, and management","volume":"80","author":"Leuci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Periodontology 2000"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2009.04142.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of desquamative gingivitis: Evaluation of 125 patients and review of the literature","volume":"48","author":"Fierro","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6195258","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/6195258","article-title":"Assessment of Salivary Levels of RANKL and OPG in Aggressive versus Chronic Periodontitis","volume":"2019","author":"Teodorescu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"220","article-title":"The importance of cytokines in periodontal disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Review","volume":"11","author":"Martu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rom. J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"18","article-title":"Oral lesions in patients with pemphigus vulgaris and bullous pemphigoid","volume":"47","author":"Budimir","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Clin. Croat."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"8286","article-title":"Desquamative Gingivitis in Cicatricial Pemphigoid: A Diagnostic Paradox!","volume":"14","author":"Misra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Forensic Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"50","article-title":"Prevalence of oral lesions modulated by patients age: The young versus the elderly","volume":"10","author":"Popa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rom. J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"30","article-title":"Wound healing of periodontal and oral tissues: Part II\u2014Patho-phisiological conditions and metabolic diseases","volume":"12","author":"Martu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rom. J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/S1079-2104(97)90263-8","article-title":"Kindler syndrome: A rare cause of desquamative lesions of the gingiva","volume":"84","author":"Ricketts","year":"1997","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endodontology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antonelli, E., Bassotti, G., Tramontana, M., Hansel, K., Stingeni, L., Ardizzone, S., Genovese, G., Marzano, A.V., and Maconi, G. (2021). Dermatological Manifestations in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10020364"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.17219\/dmp\/131989","article-title":"Oral manifestations of COVID-19: Brief review","volume":"58","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dent. Med. Probl."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/odi.13617","article-title":"Periodontitis in patients with psoriasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oral Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1746","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01746","article-title":"Role of regulatory immune cells and molecules in autoimmune bullous dermatoses","volume":"10","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"116","article-title":"COVID-19 and Periodontal Disease-Ethiopathogenic and Clinical Implications","volume":"12","author":"Martu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rom. J. Oral Rehab."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1038\/s41415-020-1848-4","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: A challenging diagnosis for clinicians","volume":"229","author":"Shaqman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/s13052-021-01097-2","article-title":"Oral ulcers in children-a clinical narrative overview","volume":"47","author":"Furlano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ital. J. Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-013-1038-8","article-title":"Periodontal clinical and microbiological data in desquamative gingivitis patients","volume":"18","author":"Gallo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Investig."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2013.01.015","article-title":"MMP-1, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 levels in oral lichen planus patients with gingivitis or periodontitis","volume":"58","author":"Ertugrul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/ijos.2013.30","article-title":"Periodontopathogen profile of healthy and oral lichen planus patients with gingivitis or periodontitis","volume":"5","author":"Ertugrul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2016.10.028","article-title":"Periodontitis in oral pemphigus and pemphigoid: A systematic review of published studies","volume":"76","author":"Jascholt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adaj.2020.08.001","article-title":"Oral chronic graft-versus-host disease: What the general dental practitioner needs to know","volume":"151","author":"Haverman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"182","article-title":"Roughness variation of a nonhybrid composite resin submitted to acid and abrasive challenges","volume":"24","author":"Taraboanta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Dent."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01974","article-title":"Serological diagnosis of autoimmune bullous skin diseases","volume":"10","author":"Saschenbrecker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e247857","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2021-247857","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: A definite indicator for mucocutaneous disorders","volume":"15","author":"Mathew","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep. CP"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S865","DOI":"10.4103\/jpbs.JPBS_622_20","article-title":"Idiopathic desquamative gingivitis","volume":"13","author":"Alkahtani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270s1278","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2012.110627","article-title":"Definitive and differential diagnosis of desquamative gingivitis through direct immunofluorescence studies","volume":"83","author":"Suresh","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2014.130428","article-title":"A stab-and-roll biopsy technique to maintain gingival epithelium for desquamative gingivitis","volume":"85","author":"Endo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"E287","article-title":"Sensitivity of direct immunofluorescence in oral diseases. Study of 125 cases","volume":"13","author":"Sano","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Oral Patol. Oral Y Cir. Bucal"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1067\/mjd.2001.117518","article-title":"Immunofluorescence in dermatology","volume":"45","author":"Mutasim","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2017.04.1140","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: Diagnosis and treatment","volume":"78","author":"Maderal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.4103\/jisp.jisp_68_20","article-title":"Proposal of a minimally invasive approach diagnosing desquamative gingivitis-associated diseases","volume":"25","author":"Cabral","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oooo.2018.02.477","article-title":"Desquamative Gingivitis: Challenges in the Diagnosis","volume":"126","author":"Oliveira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panzarella, V., Bartolone, A., Coniglio, R., Rodolico, V., Maniscalco, L., Capocasale, G., Iurato Carbone, M., and Campisi, G. (2021). Diagnostic Concordance between Optical Coherence Tomography and Histological Investigations for Immune-Mediated Desquamative Gingivitis: Observational Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18179095"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panzarella, V., Bartolone, A., Rodolico, V., Capocasale, G., Maniscalco, L., Matranga, D., Di Fede, O., and Campisi, G. (2021). Immune-Mediated Desquamative Gingivitis and Optical Coherence Tomography Diagnostic Patterns: Clinical Implication from a Systematic Review. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11081453"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-019-00461-7","article-title":"Oral lesions in autoimmune bullous diseases: An overview of clinical characteristics and diagnostic algorithm","volume":"20","author":"Rashid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-017-8662-z","article-title":"Pemphigus: A comprehensive review on pathogenesis, clinical presentation and novel therapeutic approaches","volume":"54","author":"Pollmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1253","article-title":"Oxidative Stress-Mediated YAP Dysregulation Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Pemphigus Vulgaris","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehman, A., Huang, Y., and Wan, H. (2021). Evolving Mechanisms in the Pathophysiology of Pemphigus Vulgaris: A Review Emphasizing the Role of Desmoglein 3 in Regulating p53 and the Yes-Associated Protein. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11070621"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2021.1945925","article-title":"Current status and prospects for the diagnosis of pemphigus vulgaris","volume":"17","author":"Nili","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1111\/scd.12454","article-title":"Oral management of pemphigus vulgaris in the intensive care unit","volume":"40","author":"Franco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spec. Care Dent."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Gandolfo, S., Scully, C., and Carrozzo, M. (2010). Oral Medicine, Edit, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2020.08.028","article-title":"Network meta-analysis\u2013based comparison of first-line steroid-sparing adjuvants in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus","volume":"85","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.2147\/TCRM.S142471","article-title":"Emerging treatment options for the management of pemphigus vulgaris","volume":"14","author":"Kridin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ther. Clin. Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2017.05.056","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: Clinical findings and diseases","volume":"78","author":"Maderal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01506","article-title":"New insights into the pathogenesis of bullous pemphigoid: 2019 update","volume":"10","author":"Genovese","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cirillo, N., and Prime, S.S. (2021). A Scoping Review of the Role of Metalloproteinases in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Pemphigus and Pemphigoid. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11101506"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680871","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.680871","article-title":"Risk Factors for Mucosal Involvement in Bullous Pemphigoid and the Possible Mechanism: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2018.5049","article-title":"Assessment of the prevalence of mucosal involvement in bullous pemphigoid","volume":"155","author":"Kridin","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/ajd.12040","article-title":"A retrospective review of the therapeutic response with remission in patients with newly diagnosed bullous pemphigoid","volume":"55","author":"Chuah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Australas. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"e2020050","article-title":"Pemphigus vulgaris and bullous pemphigoid: Update on diagnosis and treatment","volume":"10","author":"Casanova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dermatol. Pract. Concept."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.2147\/CCID.S267573","article-title":"Strategies to Improve Outcomes of Bullous Pemphigoid: A Comprehensive Review of Clinical Presentations, Diagnosis, and Patients\u2019 Assessment","volume":"15","author":"Ruggiero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-020-00513-3","article-title":"A review comparing international guidelines for the management of bullous pemphigoid, pemphigoid gestationis, mucous membrane pemphigoid, and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita","volume":"21","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afarideh, M., Borucki, R., and Werth, V.P. (2022). A Review of the Immunologic Pathways Involved in Bullous Pemphigoid and Novel Therapeutic Targets. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11102856"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Endo, H., Rees, T.D., Niwa, H., Kuyama, K., Oshima, M., Serizawa, T., Tanaka, S., Iijima, M., Komiya, M., and Ito, T. (2018). Desquamative gingivitis: Early sign of mucous membrane pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris. Periodontology and Dental Implantology, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.77258"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e209","DOI":"10.1097\/IOP.0000000000002021","article-title":"Chronic Early-Stage Ocular Cicatricial Pemphigoid","volume":"37","author":"Besagar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Plast. Reconstr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jds.2019.05.004","article-title":"Cicatricial pemphigoid presenting as desquamative gingivitis","volume":"15","author":"Chou","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14376","DOI":"10.1111\/dth.14376","article-title":"Therapy of autoimmune mouth bullous disease: 2020 review","volume":"34","author":"Giannetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dermatol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"3119","article-title":"Desquamative Gingivitis as the Sole Manifestation in Oral Lichen Planus: Report of Case and Brief Literature Review","volume":"20","author":"Saeed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. -Leg. Update"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Bolognia, J., Jorizzo, J.L., and Schaffer, J.V. (2017). Dermatology, Elsevier Saunders. [4th ed.]. Chapter 17."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1177\/205016841600500104","article-title":"Oral Lichen Planus","volume":"5","author":"Ion","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prim. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alajbeg, I., Challacombe, S.J., Holmstrup, P., and Jontell, M. (2021). Red and White Lesions of the Oral Mucosa. Burket\u2019s Oral Med., 85\u2013138.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119597797.ch4"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oooo.2016.03.011","article-title":"Etiology and Pathogenesis of Oral Lichen Planus: An Overview","volume":"122","author":"Kurago","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"005","DOI":"10.29328\/journal.jcad.1001024","article-title":"Risk co-factors inducing malignant transformation of oral lichen planus: A literature review of clinical studies","volume":"5","author":"Saleh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Adv. Dent."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.12918","article-title":"Oral Lichen Planus: An update on its pathogenesis","volume":"54","author":"Nogueira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15475","DOI":"10.1111\/dth.15475","article-title":"Retrospective study of gingival involvement in pemphigus: A difficult to treat phenomenon","volume":"35","author":"Balighi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dermatol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijwd.2015.04.001","article-title":"Update on lichen planus and its clinical variants","volume":"1","author":"Weston","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Womens Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Scully, C., and Lodi, G. (2022, July 17). EAOM Handbook, Available online: https:\/\/eaom.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/EAOM-Handbook.pdf."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.15406\/jdhodt.2018.09.00423","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis as a clinical sign of oral lichen planus: Review of literature","volume":"9","author":"Fabiana","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dent. Health Oral. Disord. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Odell, E.W. (2017). Cawson\u2019s Essentials of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine, Elsevier Ltd.. [9th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Da Silva Costa, R., Armelin, A.M.L., Fernandes, K.G.C., Boer, N.P., and Simonato, L.E. (2017, January 21\u201325). L\u00edquen Plano Oral Diagn\u00f3stico e Conduta. Proceedings of the IX Jornada Odontol\u00f3gica da Universidade Brazil, Sao Paulo, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"ZC34","article-title":"Direct Immunofluorescence in Oral Lichen Planus","volume":"9","author":"Buajeeb","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"1016","article-title":"Oral lichen planus-Review on etiopathogenesis and management","volume":"1","author":"Belgasem","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJ Clin. Img. Med. Rew."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"54","article-title":"Migratory stomatitis\u2013case presentation","volume":"10","author":"Filioreanu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rom. J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2018.01.021","article-title":"Oral lichen planus\u2014Differential diagnoses, serum autoantibodies, hematinic deficiencies, and management","volume":"117","author":"Chiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Formos. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1348-8643(13)00030-X","article-title":"Oral lichen planus: Malignant potential and diagnosis","volume":"11","author":"Shirasuna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oral Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/s00403-016-1667-2","article-title":"Oral lichen planus (Review and update)","volume":"308","author":"Alrashdan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.17096\/jiufd.57228","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis (Review)","volume":"50","author":"Karagoz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Istanb. Univ. Fac. Dent."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2020.9328","article-title":"Treatment trends in oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions (Review)","volume":"20","author":"Rotaru","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F1000 Faculty Rev-206","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.18713.1","article-title":"Oral lichen planus: A novel staging and algorithmic approach and all that is essential to know","volume":"9","author":"Shavit","year":"2020","journal-title":"F1000Res."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Gall, R., and Navarro-Fernandez, I.N. (2021). Lichen Planus Erosive Form, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.14476\/jomp.2019.44.3.77","article-title":"Dental Implants in Patients with Gingival Oral Lichen Planus","volume":"44","author":"Shim","year":"2019","journal-title":"JOMP"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3rski, B. (2022). Dental Implant Treatment in Patients Suffering from Oral Lichen Planus: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19148397"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.14260\/jemds\/2020\/641","article-title":"Menopausal Desquamative Gingivitis\u2014A Diagnostic Challenge","volume":"9","author":"Hr","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Evol. Med. Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"637","article-title":"Desquamative gingivitis: A systematic review of possible treatments","volume":"33","author":"Cabras","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"e136","article-title":"Oral hygiene instructions and professional control as part of the treatment of desquamative gingivitis. Systematic review","volume":"24","author":"Bagan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Oral Patol. Oral Y Cir. Bucal"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S-99","DOI":"10.1089\/pho.2009.2655","article-title":"Effect of low-level laser irradiation on unresponsive oral lichen planus: Early preliminary results in 13 patients","volume":"28","author":"Cafaro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photomed. Laser Surg."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mocanu, R.C., Martu, M.-A., Luchian, I., Sufaru, I.G., Maftei, G.A., Ioanid, N., Martu, S., and Tatarciuc, M. (2021). Microbiologic Profiles of Patients with Dental Prosthetic Treatment and Periodontitis before and after Photoactivation Therapy\u2014Randomized Clinical Trial. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9040713"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1089\/photob.2019.4706","article-title":"Photobiomodulation in oral medicine","volume":"37","author":"Kalhori","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photobiomodulation Photomed. Laser Surg."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3949","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-021-04362-0","article-title":"Photobiomodulation of gingival lesions resulting from autoimmune diseases: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Hidalgo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Investig."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellocchi, C., Carandina, A., Montinaro, B., Targetti, E., Furlan, L., Rodrigues, G.D., Tobaldini, E., and Montano, N. (2022). The Interplay between Autonomic Nervous System and Inflammation across Systemic Autoimmune Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052449"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e139","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.17700","article-title":"Assessing the risk factors for anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder through the International Pemphigus and Pemphigoid Foundation","volume":"36","author":"Patel","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1111\/jop.13150","article-title":"The health-related quality of life and psychological profile in patients with oropharyngeal Pemphigus Vulgaris in complete clinical remission: A case-control study","volume":"50","author":"Calabria","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Oral Pathol. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"57","article-title":"Assessment of the quality of life, prevalence of depression, and the level of interleukin 6 in patients with pemphigus vulgaris","volume":"28","author":"Metwally","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Dermatovenerol. Croat."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02219","article-title":"A retrospective study of patient-reported data of bullous pemphigoid and mucous membrane pemphigoid from a US-based registry","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daume, L., Kreis, C., Bohner, L., Jung, S., and Kleinheinz, J. (2021). Clinical characteristics of oral lichen planus and its causal context with dental restorative materials and oral health-related quality of life. BMC Oral Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-021-01622-z"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2571","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02571","article-title":"Assessing the correlation between disease severity indices and quality of life measurement tools in pemphigus","volume":"10","author":"Krain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Jornet, P., Zavattaro, E., Mozaffari, H.R., Ramezani, M., and Sadeghi, M. (2019). Evaluation of the Salivary Level of Cortisol in Patients with Oral Lichen Planus: A Meta-Analysis. Medicina, 55.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina55050213"}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/12\/7\/1754\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:54:24Z","timestamp":1760140464000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/12\/7\/1754"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics12071754"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics12071754","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]}}}