{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T21:17:39Z","timestamp":1791839859288,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic brain injury (TBI)-related hypopituitarism is a rare polymorphic complication of brain injury, with very little data, particularly concerning children and teenagers. This is a comprehensive review of the literature regarding this pathology, starting from a new pediatric case. The research was conducted on PubMed and included publications from the last 22 years. We identified nine original studies on the pediatric population (two case reports and seven studies; only four of these seven were prospective studies). TBI-related hypopituitarism is associated with isolated hormonal deficits ranging from 22.5% to 86% and multiple hormonal deficiencies from 5.9% to 50% in the studied pediatric population. Growth hormone (GH) deficiency is most often found, including the form with late occurrence after TBI; it was described as persistent in half of the studies. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) deficiency is identified as a distant complication following TBI; in all three studies, we identified this complication was found to be permanent. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) deficiency did not relate to a certain type of brain trauma, and it was transient in reported cases. Hyperprolactinemia was the most frequent hormonal finding, also occurring late after injury. Central diabetes insipidus was encountered early post-TBI, typically with a transient pattern and did not relate to a particular type of injury. TBI-related hypopituitarism, although rare in children, should be taken into consideration even after a long time since the trauma. A multidisciplinary approach is needed if the patient is to safely overcome any acute condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13020212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T03:19:54Z","timestamp":1672975194000},"page":"212","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["An Approach to Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Hypopituitarism: Overcoming the Pediatric Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0363-5995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raluca Maria","family":"Vlad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, \u201cGrigore Alexandrescu\u201d Emergency Children\u2019s Hospital, 011743 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice Ioana","family":"Albu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"\u201cElias\u201d Emergency Clinical Hospital, 011461 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irina Delia","family":"Nicolaescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Mary Medical Clinic, 011172 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruxandra","family":"Dobritoiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, \u201cGrigore Alexandrescu\u201d Emergency Children\u2019s Hospital, 011743 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8585-3835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mara","family":"Carsote","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"\u201cC. I. Parhon\u201d National Institute of Endocrinology, 011863 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florica","family":"Sandru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatovenerology, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"\u201cElias\u201d University Emergency Hospital, 011461 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9665-4524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dragos","family":"Albu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2nd Clinical Department Obstetrics Gynecology, Faculty of Dentistry, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8604-8691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"P\u0103curar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, \u201cGrigore Alexandrescu\u201d Emergency Children\u2019s Hospital, 011743 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.10.JNS17352","article-title":"Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury","volume":"130","author":"Dewan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(74)91639-0","article-title":"Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale","volume":"2","author":"Teasdale","year":"1974","journal-title":"Lancet Lond. Engl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2019.11.001","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury: An Overview of Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Medical Management","volume":"104","author":"Capizzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-019-00957-9","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury: Neuropathological, neurocognitive and neurobehavioral sequelae","volume":"22","author":"Pavlovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm4081536","article-title":"Update of Endocrine Dysfunction following Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"4","author":"Reifschneider","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2016-311609","article-title":"Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: Are there definitive data in children?","volume":"102","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.01410","article-title":"Epidemiology of Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury and Hypothalamic-Pituitary Disorders in Arizona","volume":"10","author":"Ortiz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.1097\/SCS.0000000000005405","article-title":"Risk Factors for Anterior Hypopituitarism in Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"30","author":"You","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Craniofacial Surg."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-019-00958-8","article-title":"Pituitary pathology in traumatic brain injury: A review","volume":"22","author":"Sav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60673-4","article-title":"Hypopituitarism","volume":"369","author":"Schneider","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2011.2048","article-title":"Lasting Pituitary Hormone Deficiency after Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"29","author":"Moreau","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2018.6349","article-title":"Prevalence of Anterior Pituitary Dysfunction Twelve Months or More following Traumatic Brain Injury in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"37","author":"Emelifeonwu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.1.02284","article-title":"Hypopituitarism in childhood and adolescence following traumatic brain injury: The case for prospective endocrine investigation","volume":"155","author":"Acerini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634415","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.634415","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury as Frequent Cause of Hypopituitarism and Growth Hormone Deficiency: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment","volume":"12","author":"Gasco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.1.01895","article-title":"Hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury","volume":"152","author":"Bondanelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00008","article-title":"Post-Traumatic Hypopituitarism\u2014Who Should Be Screened, When, and How?","volume":"9","author":"Quinn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551923","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.551923","article-title":"Evidence Limitations in Determining Sexually Dimorphic Outcomes in Pediatric Post-Traumatic Hypopituitarism and the Path Forward","volume":"11","author":"West","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X15666170613083606","article-title":"Recent Advances in Pathophysiology of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"16","author":"Kaur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.07.010","article-title":"Neuroimmunology of Traumatic Brain Injury: Time for a Paradigm Shift","volume":"95","author":"Jassam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.3558","article-title":"Inflammation and Neuroprotection in Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"72","author":"Corps","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-019-00953-z","article-title":"The role of autoimmunity in pituitary dysfunction due to traumatic brain injury","volume":"22","author":"Bellastella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1097\/RCT.0b013e3181636ed4","article-title":"Neuroimaging in posttraumatic hypopituitarism","volume":"32","author":"Makulski","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1080\/02699050400025315","article-title":"Consensus guidelines on screening for hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury","volume":"19","author":"Ghigo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2013.3002","article-title":"Screening for Hypopituitarism in 509 Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury or Subarachnoid Hemorrhage","volume":"31","author":"Kopczak","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-09-00189","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Hypopituitarism: A Review and Recommendations for Screening Combat Veterans","volume":"175","author":"Guerrero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2020.7265","article-title":"Effect of Growth Hormone on Neuropsychological Outcomes and Quality of Life of Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review","volume":"38","author":"Szarka","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"309","article-title":"Development of Synthetic Growth Charts for Romanian Population","volume":"12","author":"Pascanu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, November 11). Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/child-growth\/growth-reference-5-19-years\/bmi-for-age-(5-19-years)\/bmifa-boys-5-19years-z.pdf?sfvrsn=b74e5f9a_4."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.11152\/mu-980","article-title":"Thyroid Ultrasound: State of the Art Part 1 Thyroid Ultrasound reporting and Diffuse Thyroid Diseases","volume":"19","author":"Dighe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4929","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-0511","article-title":"Anterior Pituitary Dysfunction in Survivors of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"89","author":"Agha","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2013.2916","article-title":"Hypopituitarism in pediatric survi-vors of inflicted traumatic brain injury","volume":"31","author":"Auble","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"205","article-title":"Trau-matic brain injury and hypopituitarism in children and adolescents: Is the problem under-estimated?","volume":"4","author":"Schneider","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-013-2334-y","article-title":"Prospective investigation of anterior pituitary function in the acute phase and 12 months after pediatric traumatic brain injury","volume":"30","author":"Ulutabanca","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child\u2019s Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.5507\/bp.2016.047","article-title":"Prospective study of hypothalamo-hypophyseal dysfunction in children and adolescents following traumatic brain injury","volume":"161","author":"Krahulik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pap."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2010.07.004","article-title":"Endocrine dysfunction following traumatic brain injury in children","volume":"157","author":"Kaulfers","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0034","article-title":"Pituitary deficiency and precocious puberty after childhood severe traumatic brain injury: A long-term follow-up prospective study","volume":"180","author":"Dassa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2012.2752","article-title":"A Five Year Prospective Investigation of Anterior Pituitary Function after Traumatic Brain Injury: Is Hypopituitarism Long-Term after Head Trauma Associated with Autoimmunity?","volume":"30","author":"Tanriverdi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2014.10.012","article-title":"Hypopituitarism After Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"44","author":"Bernabeu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-008-0102-x","article-title":"Does the type and severity of brain injury predict hypothalamo\u2013pituitary dysfunction? Does post-traumatic hypopituitarism predict worse outcome?","volume":"11","author":"Klose","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-010-2012-4","article-title":"Secondary adrenal insufficiency in the acute phase of pediatric traumatic brain injury","volume":"36","author":"Dupuis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Intensiv. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-011-0360-x","article-title":"Endocrine changes after pediatric traumatic brain injury","volume":"15","author":"Rose","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03070.x","article-title":"Three years prospective investigation of anterior pituitary function after traumatic brain injury: As pilot study","volume":"68","author":"Tanriverdi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6085","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-0504","article-title":"Residual pituitary function after brain injury-induced hypopituitarism: A prospective 12-month study","volume":"90","author":"Aimaretti","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0166","article-title":"Growth hormone secretion, fatigue and quality of life after childhood traumatic brain injury","volume":"181","author":"Daskas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"62","article-title":"Pituitary Deficiency Following Traumatic Brain In-jury In Early Childhood: A Review Of The Literature","volume":"244\u2013245","author":"Soliman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Georgian. Med. News"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"458","article-title":"Precocious Puberty Following Trau-matic Brain Injury in Early Childhood: A Review of the Literature","volume":"13","author":"Soliman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-2284","article-title":"Permanent hypopituitarism is rare after structural traumatic brain injury in early childhood","volume":"97","author":"Heather","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00072","article-title":"Chronic Hypopituitarism Associated with Increased Postconcussive Symptoms Is Prevalent after Blast-Induced Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"9","author":"Undurti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.17116\/neiro202286051112","article-title":"Permanent central diabetes insipidus after traumatic brain injury. Case report and literature review","volume":"86","author":"Astafyeva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vopr. Neirokhirurgii Im. N.N. Burdenko"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1261","article-title":"Hypophysensch\u00e4digung durch Sch\u00e4delbasisfraktur","volume":"44","author":"Cyran","year":"1918","journal-title":"Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RC9","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03346291","article-title":"Pi-tuitary imaging abnormalities in patients with and without hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury","volume":"30","author":"Schneider","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Invest."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-0601","article-title":"Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury: Prevalence is affected by the use of different dynamic tests and different normal values","volume":"162","author":"Kokshoorn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ghir.2005.02.003","article-title":"Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury","volume":"15","author":"Popovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Growth Horm. IGF Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1515\/JPEM.2006.19.5.691","article-title":"Hypothalamo-hypophysial Dysfunction After Traumatic Brain Injury in Children and Adolescents: A Preliminary Retrospective and Prospective Study","volume":"19","author":"Einaudi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/ams2.220","article-title":"Post-traumatic hypopituitarism: Report of a child case","volume":"4","author":"Aoki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acute Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"9","article-title":"Post-traumatic hypopituitarism: A Case Report of a Child","volume":"23","author":"Sayarifard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Iran J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R112","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-20-0117","article-title":"Traumatic brain injuries induced pituitary dysfunction: A call for algorithms","volume":"9","year":"2020","journal-title":"Endocr. Connect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.3998","article-title":"Predictors of Hypopituitarism in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"32","author":"Silva","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-2476","article-title":"High Risk of Hypopituitarism after Traumatic Brain Injury: A Prospective Investigation of Anterior Pituitary Function in the Acute Phase and 12 Months after Trauma","volume":"91","author":"Tanriverdi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1515\/JPEM.2006.19.5.687","article-title":"Pituitary Dysfunction Following Head Injury A Common Problem, Rarely Diagnosed","volume":"19","author":"Thompson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2016-315500","article-title":"The screening and management of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury in adults: British Neurotrauma Group guidance","volume":"88","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/1757-7241-21-33","article-title":"Acute neuro-endocrine profile and prediction of outcome after severe brain injury","volume":"21","author":"Olivecrona","year":"2013","journal-title":"Scand. J. Trauma, Resusc. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kgosidialwa, O., Hakami, O., Zia-Ul-Hussnain, H.M., and Agha, A. (2019). Growth Hormone Deficiency Following Traumatic Brain Injury. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20133323"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2010.03857.x","article-title":"Evaluation of pituitary function after traumatic brain injury in childhood","volume":"73","author":"Khadr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ghir.2022.101495","article-title":"A consensus on optimization of care in patients with growth hormone deficiency and mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"66","author":"Yuen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Growth Horm. IGF Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696510","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.696510","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"12","author":"Serpa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-021-01656-8","article-title":"Thyroid function in the subacute phase of traumatic brain injury: A potential predictor of post-traumatic neurological and functional outcomes","volume":"45","author":"Mele","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12237","article-title":"Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury in children: Is there a need for ongoing endocrine assessment?","volume":"79","author":"Medina","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-006-6045-1","article-title":"Variations of Pituitary Function over Time after Brain Injuries: The Lesson from a Prospective Study","volume":"8","author":"Giordano","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-012-0446-0","article-title":"Measurement of height velocity is an useful marker for monitoring pituitary function in patients who had traumatic brain injury","volume":"16","author":"Bellone","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2022-0129","article-title":"Recurrent hypoglycemic seizure as a presenting symptom of post-TBI hypopituitarism in children: A case report, review and proposed protocol","volume":"35","author":"Aungkawattanapong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.14963","article-title":"Guidelines for the management of glucocorticoids during the peri-operative period for patients with adrenal insufficiency: Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists, the Royal College of Physicians and the Society for En-docrinology UK","volume":"75","author":"Woodcock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.13952","article-title":"Peri-operative steroid management in the paediatric population","volume":"65","author":"Heath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.02860.x","article-title":"Prevalence and predictive factors of post-traumatic hypopituitarism","volume":"67","author":"Klose","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"2752","article-title":"Prevalence of neuroendocrine dysfunction in pa-tients recovering from traumatic brain injury","volume":"86","author":"Lieberman","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.2000.93.5.0743","article-title":"Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A preliminary report","volume":"93","author":"Kelly","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03020.x","article-title":"Predictors of anterior pituitary in-sufficiency after traumatic brain injury","volume":"68","author":"Schneider","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1089\/0897715041269713","article-title":"Occurrence of Pituitary Dysfunction following Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"21","author":"Bondanelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2007.0456","article-title":"Apolipoprotein E3\/E3 genotype decreases the risk of pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury due to various causes: Preliminary data","volume":"25","author":"Tanriverdi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23958","article-title":"Pituitary dysfunction after blast traumatic brain injury","volume":"74","author":"Baxter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/13\/2\/212\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:01:02Z","timestamp":1760119262000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/13\/2\/212"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics13020212"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics13020212","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]}}}