{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,11]],"date-time":"2026-07-11T16:44:36Z","timestamp":1783788276777,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685059200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Development of the sleep\u2013wake rhythm has a significant effect on the physical and mental development of children. The sleep\u2013wake rhythm is controlled by aminergic neurons in the brainstem\u2019s ascending reticular activating system, which is associated with synaptogenesis and the promotion of brain development. The sleep\u2013wake rhythm develops rapidly within the first year after birth. At 3\u20134 months of age, the framework of the circadian rhythm is established. The objective of the present review is to assess a hypothesis concerning problems in the development of the sleep\u2013wake rhythm and their effect on neurodevelopmental disorders. Autism spectrum disorder is characterised by a delay in the development of sleep rhythms at 3\u20134 months of age and also insomnia and night-time awakenings, as supported by several reports. Melatonin may shorten the sleep latency in ASD. Rett syndrome sufferers kept awake during the daytime were analysed by the Sleep\u2013wake Rhythm Investigation Support System (SWRISS) (IAC, Inc., (Tokyo, Japan)), and the cause was found to be the dysfunction of aminergic neurons. Children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder show sleep problems such as resistance to bedtime, difficulty falling asleep, sleep apnoea, and restless legs syndrome. Sleep deprivation syndrome in schoolchildren is deeply influenced by Internet use, games, and smartphones, and this syndrome affects emotion, learning, concentration, and executive functioning. Sleep disorders in adults are strongly considered to affect not only the physiological\/autonomic nervous system but also neurocognitive\/psychiatric symptoms. Even adults cannot avoid serious problems, much less children, and the impact of sleep problems is considerably greater in adults. Paediatricians and nurses should be aware of the significance, from birth, of sleep development and sleep hygiene education for carers and parents. This research was reviewed and approved by the ethical committee of the Segawa Memorial Neurological Clinic for Children (No. SMNCC23-02).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13111859","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T16:16:04Z","timestamp":1685204164000},"page":"1859","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Problems in the Development of the Sleep\u2013Wake Rhythm Influence Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6659-7485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyoko","family":"Hoshino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Segawa Memorial Neurological Clinic for Children, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsmc.2022.02.006","article-title":"Neurobiology of Circadian Rhythm Regulation","volume":"17","author":"Rosenwasser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah4967","article-title":"Circadian physiology of metabolism","volume":"354","author":"Panda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsmc.2022.03.001","article-title":"Sleep, Health, and Society","volume":"17","author":"Grandner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"219","article-title":"Pathogenesis of early in-fantile autism","volume":"3","author":"Segawa","year":"1979","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Clemente, C.D., Purpura, D.P., and Mayer, F.E. (1972). Sleep and the Maturing Nervous System, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"591","article-title":"The Neurobiology of Sleep: Genetics, cellular physiology and subcortical networks","volume":"3","author":"Edward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(64)80291-2","article-title":"Infant sleep patterns: From birth to 16 weeks of age","volume":"65","author":"Parmelee","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.165.147","article-title":"The Development of Sleep and Wakefulness Cycle in Early Infancy and Its Relationship to Feeding Habit","volume":"165","author":"Matsuoka","year":"1991","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2016.07.011","article-title":"Ultradian rhythms in mammalian physiology and behavior","volume":"40","author":"Prendergast","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Fejeman, N., and Chamoles, N.A. (1993). New Trends in Pediatric Neurology, Elseviere Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1177\/0748730416685451","article-title":"Developmental Changes in Ultradian Sleep Cycles across Early Childhood","volume":"32","author":"Lopp","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2869.2007.00582.x","article-title":"The use of actigraphy for assessment of the development of sleep\/wake patterns in infants during the first 12 months of life","volume":"16","author":"So","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"440","article-title":"Sleep of 4-month-old infants: Bedtime, night waking and sleep problems","volume":"54","author":"Hayama","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nihon Koshu Eisei Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-0815C","article-title":"Sleep-Related Nighttime Crying (Yonaki) in Japan: A Community-Based Study","volume":"115","author":"Fukumizu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/11.4.387","article-title":"Sleep and Waking States in Infancy: Normative Studies","volume":"11","author":"Hoppenbrouwers","year":"1988","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.acdb.2020.11.003","article-title":"The relation between sleep and neurocognitive development in infancy and early childhood: A neuroscience perspective","volume":"60","author":"Basile","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Child Dev. Behav."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"211","article-title":"Early modulation of sleep parameters and its importance in later behavior","volume":"5","author":"Segawa","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Dysfunct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.15485","article-title":"Current ideas about the roles of rapid eye movement and non\u2013rapid eye movement sleep in brain development","volume":"110","author":"Knoop","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5332e1\u2013e7","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.16m11127","article-title":"Prospective Associations Between Infant Sleep at 12 Months and Autism Spectrum Disorder Screening Scores at 24 Months in a Community-Based Birth Cohort","volume":"79","author":"Nguyen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-018-0194-8","article-title":"The bidirectional association between sleep problems and autism spectrum disorder: A population-based cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Verhoeff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00487","article-title":"Problem Behavior in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Considering Core Symptom Severity and Accompanying Sleep Disturbance","volume":"10","author":"Lindor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2019.11.1244","article-title":"Sleep disturbances and associated factors among 2-6-year-old male children with autism in Bhubaneswar, India","volume":"67","author":"Samanta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e318228888d","article-title":"Attachment and Infant Night Waking: A Longitudinal Study from Birth through the First Year of Life","volume":"32","author":"Beijers","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"184","article-title":"Pathogenesis of early infantile autism","volume":"4","author":"Segawa","year":"1982","journal-title":"Bull. Jpn. Assoc. Sci. Study Ment. Defic."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"824","article-title":"Circadian rhythm at age 3\u20134 months is associated with risk of autism spectrum disorder","volume":"124","author":"Hoshino","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Pediatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0387-7604(86)80072-9","article-title":"Polysomnography\u2014Functional topographical examination of the basal ganglia","volume":"8","author":"Segawa","year":"1986","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569594","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.569594","article-title":"Very-Low-Dose Levodopa Therapy for Pediatric Neurological Disorders: A Preliminary Questionnaire in Japan","volume":"9","author":"Hoshino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"S315","article-title":"Evaluation of sleep rhythms and effects of very low-dose L-dopa therapy using the Sleep-Wake Rhythm Investigation Support System (SWRISS) (IAC, Inc.) in 66 Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)","volume":"47","author":"Hoshino","year":"2015","journal-title":"No Hattatsu"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2525","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-014-2123-9","article-title":"Melatonin in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Endogenous and Pharmacokinetic Profiles in Relation to Sleep","volume":"44","author":"Goldman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"345.e6664","article-title":"Melatonin for sleep problems in children with neuro-developmental disorders: Randomised double masked placebo controlled trial","volume":"5","author":"Gringras","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuge, K., Nagamitsu, S., Ishikawa, Y., Hamada, I., Takahashi, H., Sugioka, H., Yotsuya, O., Mishima, K., Hayashi, M., and Yamashita, Y. (2020). Long-term melatonin treatment for the sleep problems and aberrant behaviors of children with neurodevelopmental disorders. BMC Psychiatry, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-02847-y"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2784","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-021-05139-w","article-title":"Melatonin Treatment and Adequate Sleep Hygiene Interventions in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"52","author":"Hayashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0387-7604(12)80178-1","article-title":"The pathophysiology of the Rett syndrome from the standpoint of polysomnography","volume":"12","author":"Segawa","year":"1990","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Segawa, M. Critical Ages in Child Care and Education from the Perspective of Neural Circuit Development. J-GLOBAL ID: 202104008052498185 Research Project Code: 7700300088. Available online: Https:\/\/projectdb.jst.go.jp\/grant\/JST-PROJECT-7700300088\/ (accessed on 4 May 2023)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817195","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.817195","article-title":"Sleep Disorders in Rett Syndrome and Rett-Related Disorders: A Narrative Review","volume":"13","author":"Tascini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.09.006","article-title":"ADHD and sleep: Recent advances and future directions","volume":"34","author":"Becker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2010.02.012","article-title":"Sleep and ADHD","volume":"11","author":"Konofal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakatani, M., Okada, S., Shimizu, S., Mohri, I., Ohno, Y., Taniike, M., and Makikawa, M. (2013, January 3\u20137). Body movement analysis during sleep for children with ADHD using video image processing. Proceedings of the 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2013.6611016"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054718775826","article-title":"Association of Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Hypersomnolence in Two Clinic-Based Adult Cohorts","volume":"24","author":"Lopez","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.13290","article-title":"Aripiprazole as a new treatment for the prolonged nocturnal sleep of patient with idiopathic hypersomnia","volume":"75","author":"Imanishi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2008.146845","article-title":"Sleep problems in a Down syndrome population","volume":"94","author":"Carter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"520215","article-title":"Effects of adenotonsillectomy on neu-rocognitive function in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome","volume":"2014","author":"Horiuchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-009-0746-8","article-title":"Sleep disturbances and serum ferritin levels in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"18","author":"Cortese","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e221","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.12173","article-title":"Early childhood-onset restless legs syndrome: Symptoms and effect of oral iron treatment","volume":"102","author":"Tilma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abou-Khadra, M.K., Amin, O.R., Shaker, O.G., and Rabah, T.M. (2013). Parent-reported sleep problems, symptom ratings, and serum ferritin levels in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A case control study. BMC Pediatr., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-13-217"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1080\/07420520802261705","article-title":"A Study of the Association between Sleep Habits and Problematic Behaviors in Preschool Children","volume":"25","author":"Yokomaku","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1111\/ped.14178","article-title":"Factors associated with sleep duration among pupils","volume":"62","author":"Kohyama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2009.10.036","article-title":"Roles of Parental Sleep\/Wake Patterns, Socioeconomic Status, and Daytime Activities in the Sleep\/Wake Patterns of Children","volume":"156","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"246","article-title":"Analysis of late bedtime and influencing factors for it with respect to infants\u2019 development age and sleep behavior of parents and children","volume":"99","author":"Shinkoda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.2009.814","article-title":"A Brief Parental Education for Shaping Sleep Habits in 4-Month-Old Infants","volume":"7","author":"Adachi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1479-8425.2005.00166.x","article-title":"Children\u2019s ability to copy triangular figures is afeced by their sleep\u2014wakefulness rhythms","volume":"3","author":"Suzuki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sleep Biol. Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-017-3148-7","article-title":"The Prevalence of Internet Addiction Among a Japanese Adolescent Psychiatric Clinic Sample with Autism Spectrum Disorder and\/or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"47","author":"So","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12918","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.12918","article-title":"Development of sleep\u2013wake rhythms during the first year of age","volume":"29","author":"Paavonen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2022.101775","article-title":"Novel and noninvasive methods for in-home sleep measurement and subsequent state coding in 12-month-old infants","volume":"69","author":"Horger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infant Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22102","DOI":"10.2196\/22102","article-title":"An Interactive Smartphone App, Nenne Navi, for Improving Children\u2019s Sleep: Pilot Usability Study","volume":"3","author":"Yoshizaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"JMIR Pediatr. Parent."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/13\/11\/1859\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:42:36Z","timestamp":1760125356000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/13\/11\/1859"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics13111859"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics13111859","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]}}}