{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T16:16:05Z","timestamp":1785514565378,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692576000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The remarkable recent advances in managing keratoconus, the most common corneal ectasia, encouraged researchers to conduct further studies on the disease. Despite the abundance of information about keratoconus, debates persist regarding the detection of mild cases. Early detection plays a crucial role in facilitating less invasive treatments. This review encompasses corneal data ranging from the basic sciences to the application of artificial intelligence in keratoconus patients. Diagnostic systems utilize automated decision trees, support vector machines, and various types of neural networks, incorporating input from various corneal imaging equipment. Although the integration of artificial intelligence techniques into corneal imaging devices may take time, their popularity in clinical practice is increasing. Most of the studies reviewed herein demonstrate a high discriminatory power between normal and keratoconus cases, with a relatively lower discriminatory power for subclinical keratoconus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13162715","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T08:53:31Z","timestamp":1692608011000},"page":"2715","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Keratoconus Diagnosis: From Fundamentals to Artificial Intelligence: A Systematic Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sana","family":"Niazi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Ophthalmology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran P.O. Box 1336616351, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2839-9696","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), 2650 Edegem, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1393-1598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oliver","family":"Findl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Vienna Institute for Research in Ocular Surgery (VIROS), Hanusch Hospital, 1140 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zisis","family":"Gatzioufas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3758-0569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farideh","family":"Doroodgar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Ophthalmology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran P.O. Box 1336616351, Iran"},{"name":"Negah Aref Ophthalmic Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran P.O. Box 1544914599, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5596-1958","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Hasan","family":"Shahriari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran P.O. Box 1971653313, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad Ali","family":"Javadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ophthalmic Research Center, Labbafinezhad Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran P.O. Box 19395-4741, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"214","article-title":"Corneal blindness: A global perspective","volume":"79","author":"Whitcher","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, K., Verspoor, K., Sahebjada, S., and Baird, P.N. (2022). Accuracy of Machine Learning Assisted Detection of Keratoconus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Clin. 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