{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T15:19:36Z","timestamp":1791386376385,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":183,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]],"date-time":"2023-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700697600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Abnormal retrobulbar hemodynamics have been linked to the development of various ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Additionally, altered retrobulbar blood flow has been observed in patients with severe cardiovascular diseases, including carotid artery occlusion, stroke, heart failure, and acute coronary syndrome. Due to the complex and intricate anatomy of retrobulbar blood vessels and their location behind the eyeball, measurement of retrobulbar blood flow and vascular reactivity, as well as the interpretation of the findings, are challenging. Various methods, such as color Doppler imaging, computed tomography angiography or magnetic resonance imaging, have been employed to assess retrobulbar blood flow velocities in vivo. Color Doppler imaging represents a fast and non-invasive method to measure retrobulbar blood flow velocities in vivo. While no information about vessel diameter can be gained performing this method, computed tomography angiography and magnetic resonance imaging provide information about vessel diameter and detailed information on the anatomical course. Additionally, ex vivo studies, such as myography, utilizing genetically modified animal models may provide high optical resolution for functional vascular investigations in these small vessels. To our best knowledge, this is the first review, presenting a detailed overview of methods aiming to evaluate retrobulbar blood flow and vascular reactivity in both humans and laboratory animals. Furthermore, we will summarize the disturbances observed in retrobulbar blood flow in retinal, optic nerve, and cardiovascular diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13233514","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]],"date-time":"2023-11-23T06:06:23Z","timestamp":1700719583000},"page":"3514","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Measurement of Retrobulbar Blood Flow and Vascular Reactivity\u2014Relevance for Ocular and Cardiovascular Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6273-3684","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsa Wilma","family":"B\u00f6hm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nils F.","family":"Grauhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroradiology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norbert","family":"Pfeiffer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3506-8465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrian","family":"Gericke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.121.12.1711","article-title":"Ocular hemodynamics and glaucoma prognosis: A color Doppler imaging study","volume":"121","author":"Galassi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. 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