{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T16:01:18Z","timestamp":1791820878811,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]],"date-time":"2024-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NextGenerationEU","award":["MUR D.M. 737\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MUR D.M. 737\/2021"]}]},{"name":"NextGenerationEU","award":["PRJ-1030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRJ-1030"]}]},{"name":"University of Palermo","award":["MUR D.M. 737\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MUR D.M. 737\/2021"]}]},{"name":"University of Palermo","award":["PRJ-1030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRJ-1030"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Frequent and excessive consumption of alcohol, be it episodic or sustained misuse, ranks among the top causes of mortality globally. This comprehensive analysis seeks to elucidate how alcohol misuse precipitates death, with a particular focus on associated cardiac anomalies. Notably, the phenomenon of \u201cHoliday Heart Syndrome\u201d, linked to binge drinking, is recognized for inducing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Moreover, persistent alcohol consumption is implicated in the development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy, a condition that underlies heart failure and arrhythmic disturbances of the heart. Additionally, individuals undergoing withdrawal from alcohol frequently exhibit disruptions in normal heart rhythm, posing a risk of death. This review further delves into additional alcohol-related mortality factors, including the heightened likelihood of hypertension, cerebrovascular accidents (strokes), and the connection between excessive alcohol use and Takotsubo syndrome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14111189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]],"date-time":"2024-06-05T05:59:42Z","timestamp":1717567182000},"page":"1189","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A Comprehensive Review on Alcohol Abuse Disorder Fatality, from Alcohol Binges to Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9964-0184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonina","family":"Argo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8990-0352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Walter","family":"Pitingaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3094-5908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Puntarello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Buscemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0917-7809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ginevra","family":"Malta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tommaso","family":"D\u2019Anna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9636-572X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe Davide","family":"Albano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Zerbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties \u201cGiuseppe D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 133, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, October 21). Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health 2018. Available online: www.who.int\/substance_abuse\/publications\/global_alcohol_report\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60746-7","article-title":"Global burden of disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use and alcohol-use disorders","volume":"373","author":"Rehm","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Sol\u00e0, J. (2020). The Effects of Ethanol on the Heart: Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020572"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-801284-0.00011-7","article-title":"Converging actions of alcohol on liver and brain immune signaling","volume":"118","author":"Szabo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2000). Health risks and benefits of alcohol consumption. Alcohol Res. Health, 24, 5\u201311."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14703","article-title":"Alcohol use disorders and the heart","volume":"114","author":"Day","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2018.02.001","article-title":"Alcohol and CV health: Jekyll and Hyde J-curves","volume":"61","author":"DiNicolantonio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2015.91","article-title":"Cardiovascular risks and benefits of moderate and heavy alcohol consumption","volume":"12","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2010.01.006","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Costanzo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., and Brennan, S.E. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2013.11.005","article-title":"Alcohol and cardiovascular health: The dose makes the poison\u2026or the remedy","volume":"89","author":"Bhatti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"St\u0103tescu, C., Clement, A., \u0218erban, I.L., and Sasc\u0103u, R. (2021). Consensus and Controversy in the Debate over the Biphasic Impact of Alcohol Consumption on the Cardiovascular System. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041076"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-98-5-849","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of alcohol","volume":"98","author":"Knochel","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-5299.2002.00282.x","article-title":"Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: Is it dose-dependent?","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Congest. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piano, M.R., Thur, L.A., Hwang, C.L., and Phillips, S.A. (2020). Effects of Alcohol on the Cardiovascular System in Women. Alcohol Res., 40.","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v40.2.12"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roerecke, M., Tobe, S.W., Kaczorowski, J., Bacon, S.L., Vafaei, A., Hasan, O.S.M., Krishnan, R.J., Raifu, A.O., and Rehm, J. (2018). Sex-Specific Associations Between Alcohol Consumption and Incidence of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. J. Am. Heart Assoc., 7.","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.117.008202"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"430","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of alcohol","volume":"151","author":"Davidson","year":"1989","journal-title":"West. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12390","article-title":"Alcohol and cardiovascular diseases: Where do we stand today?","volume":"278","author":"Klatsky","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.1984.11698653","article-title":"Alcohol use and hypertension. Clinical considerations and implications","volume":"75","author":"Clark","year":"1984","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1007\/s00059-016-4469-6","article-title":"Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: The result of dosage and individual predisposition","volume":"41","author":"Maisch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Herz"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e108","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(17)30003-8","article-title":"The effect of a reduction in alcohol consumption on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Roerecke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, M.-H., Shin, E.-S., Ihm, S.-H., Jung, J.-G., Lee, H.-Y., and Kim, C.-H. (2020). The effect of alcohol dose on the development of hypertension in Asian and Western men: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Korean J. Intern. Med., 35.","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2019.016"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1097\/01.hjh.0000184408.97385.bb","article-title":"How many alcoholic drinks might benefit an older person with hypertension?","volume":"23","author":"Bulpitt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678375","article-title":"To drink or not to drink? That is the question","volume":"116","author":"Kloner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcm.2021.03.003","article-title":"The proarrhythmic conundrum of alcohol intake","volume":"32","author":"Manolis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8703(76)80436-X","article-title":"Cardiac conduction abnormalities produced by chronic alcoholism","volume":"91","author":"Ettinger","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giannopoulos, G., Anagnostopoulos, I., Kousta, M., Vergopoulos, S., Deftereos, S., and Vassilikos, V. (2022). Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Incident Atrial Fibrillation: A Meta-Analysis. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12020479"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-98-2-135","article-title":"The \u201choliday heart\u201d: Electrophysiologic studies of alcohol effects in alcoholics","volume":"98","author":"Greenspon","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauchier, L. (2003). Alcoholic cardiomyopathy and ventricular arrhythmias. Chest, 123.","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.123.4.1320"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Sol\u00e0, J., and Planavila Porta, A. (2016). New Treatment Strategies for Alcohol-Induced Heart Damage. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17101651"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2020.01.068","article-title":"Burden of arrhythmia and electrophysiologic procedures in alcoholic cardiomyopathy hospitalizations","volume":"304","author":"Sulaiman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.68.1.24","article-title":"Electrocardiographic abnormalities in alcoholic cardiomyopathy. A study of 65 patients","volume":"68","author":"Bashour","year":"1975","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"216","article-title":"Frequent drinking is a more important risk factor for new-onset atrial fibrillation than binge drinking: A nationwide population-based study","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"EP Europace"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2015.07.029","article-title":"Malignant ventricular arrhythmias in alcoholic cardiomyopathy","volume":"199","author":"Dominguez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2020.02.022","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and risk of incident atrial fibrillation: A population-based cohort study","volume":"76","author":"Johansson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2019-315534","article-title":"Characteristics of subjects with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death","volume":"106","author":"Hietanen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.037702","article-title":"Sudden Cardiac Death in Women","volume":"139","author":"Haukilahti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3A","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(86)80023-7","article-title":"Alcoholic cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death","volume":"8","author":"Vikhert","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchf.2014.07.014","article-title":"Natural history and prognostic factors in alcoholic cardiomyopathy","volume":"3","author":"Segovia","year":"2015","journal-title":"JACC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Laurent, D., and Edwards, J.G. (2014). Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy: Multigenic Changes Underlie Cardiovascular Dysfunction. J. Cardiol. Clin. Res., 2."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2011.06.031","article-title":"Causes of nonischemic sudden cardiac death in the current era","volume":"8","author":"Hookana","year":"2011","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019743","article-title":"Alcohol and Immediate Risk of Cardiovascular Events: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis","volume":"133","author":"Mostofsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2015-133755","article-title":"Cardiac manifestations in alcoholic liver disease","volume":"92","year":"2016","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2009.12.019","article-title":"Alcohol and cardiovascular health","volume":"100","author":"Klatsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angelini, P., Uribe, C., and Tobis, J.M. (2021). Pathophysiology of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: Reopened Debate. Tex. Heart Inst. J., 48.","DOI":"10.14503\/THIJ-20-7490"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luu, L.A., Rawashdeh, B., Goldaracena, N., Agarwal, A., McCracken, E.K., Sahli, Z.T., Oberholzer, J., and Pelletier, S.J. (2020). Hepatic Artery Thrombosis and Takotsubo Syndrome After Liver Transplantation\u2014Which Came First?. Am. J. Case Rep., 21.","DOI":"10.12659\/AJCR.920263"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeh, J., and Carroll, J. (2021). Takotsubo cardiomyopathy complicating acute pancreatitis: A case report. BMC Gastroenterol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-021-01725-5"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Juboori, A., Gautam, S., and Kaur, S. (2016). Diagnostic Dilemma of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy in the Setting of Decompensated Cirrhosis. J. Clin. Gastroenterol., 50.","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000000586"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agh223","article-title":"Alcohol and hypertension: An old relationship revisited","volume":"41","author":"Tomson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00002037","article-title":"Alcohol and the heart","volume":"26","author":"Schoppet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Herz"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1987.tb01274.x","article-title":"Hypophosphatemia and hypomagnesemia result in cardiovascular dysfunction: Theoretical basis for alcohol-induced cellular injury","volume":"11","author":"Brautbar","year":"1987","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1536\/ihj.15.337","article-title":"The incidence of myocardial abnormalities in man related to the level of ethanol consumption. A proposal of a diagnostic criterion of alcoholic cardiomyopathy","volume":"15","author":"Koide","year":"1974","journal-title":"Jpn. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.4330\/wjc.v6.i5.245","article-title":"Alcohol-induced hypertension: Mechanism and prevention","volume":"6","author":"Husain","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.19.2145","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and risk for coronary heart disease in men with healthy lifestyles","volume":"166","author":"Mukamal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0954-6820.1987.tb13047.x","article-title":"Experimental models for studying the effects of ethanol on the myocardium","volume":"717","author":"Regan","year":"1987","journal-title":"Acta Medica Scand. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/9.1.134","article-title":"Myocardial lesions induced by prolonged alcohol feeding in rhesus monkeys","volume":"9","author":"Vasdev","year":"1975","journal-title":"Cardiovasc Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(83)80195-8","article-title":"Effect of whiskey on atrial vulnerability and \u201choliday heart\u201d","volume":"1","author":"Engel","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triolo, V., Span\u00f2, M., Buscemi, R., Gio\u00e8, S., Malta, G., \u010caplinskiene, M., Vaiano, F., Bertol, E., Zerbo, S., and Albano, G.D. (2022). EtG Quantification in Hair and Different Reference Cut-Offs in Relation to Various Pathologies: A Scoping Review. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10110682"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"55","article-title":"Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: An introductory review","volume":"106","author":"Shanoff","year":"1972","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cannizzaro, E., Lavanco, G., Castelli, V., Cirrincione, L., Di Majo, D., Martines, F., Argo, A., and Plescia, F. (2022). Alcohol and Nicotine Use among Adolescents: An Observational Study in a Sicilian Cohort of High School Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19106152"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.121.5.1638","article-title":"Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy: Incidence, Clinical Characteristics, and Pathophysiology","volume":"121","author":"Piano","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2007.01.011","article-title":"Alcohol, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes mellitus","volume":"55","author":"Klatsky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-3057(80)80006-2","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of alcohol","volume":"13","author":"Rubin","year":"1980","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/0146-2806(87)90012-0","article-title":"Alcohol and the cardiovascular system","volume":"12","author":"McCall","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/0741-8329(84)90057-0","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of alcohol with particular reference to the heart","volume":"1","author":"Friedman","year":"1984","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.42.3.274","article-title":"Electrophysiological properties of right heart and atrioventricular conducting system in patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy","volume":"42","author":"Luca","year":"1979","journal-title":"Br. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1097\/00075198-200110000-00004","article-title":"Effects of alcohol on the heart","volume":"7","author":"Spies","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1994.tb00887.x","article-title":"Alcohol and the heart: Good and bad news","volume":"89","author":"Douds","year":"1994","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0b013e318191c6a8","article-title":"Psychotropic drugs associated with corrected QT interval prolongation","volume":"29","author":"Straus","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bku016","article-title":"Unexpected variation of the codeine\/morphine ratio following fatal heroin overdose","volume":"38","author":"Gambaro","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00e9mes, K., Malmo, V., Laugsand, L.E., Loennechen, J.P., Ellekjaer, H., L\u00e1szl\u00f3, K.D., Ahnve, S., Vatten, L.J., Mukamal, K.J., and Janszky, I. (2017). Does Moderate Drinking Increase the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation? The Norwegian HUNT (Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag Health) Study. J. Am. Heart Assoc., 6.","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.117.007094"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinagra, G., Merlo, M., and Pinamonti, B. (2019). Dilated Cardiomyopathy: From Genetics to Clinical Management, Springer. Chapter 15.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-13864-6"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2006.00018.x","article-title":"Dispersion of the corrected QT and JT interval in the electrocardiogram of alcoholic patients","volume":"30","year":"2006","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-018-4226-3","article-title":"Specific Features of Depolarization of the Left and Right Atria in Rats with Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy","volume":"165","author":"Roshchevskaya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-017-3865-0","article-title":"Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy: Translation Model","volume":"163","author":"Kryzhanovskii","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dundung, A., Kumar, A., Guria, R.T., Preetam, M., Tara, R.K., Kumar, B., and Saba, M.K. (2020). Clinical profile and prognostic factors of alcoholic cardiomyopathy in tribal and non-tribal population. Open Heart, 7, Erratum in Open Heart 2020, 7.","DOI":"10.1136\/openhrt-2020-001335"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2012.04.001","article-title":"Development and validation of a reliable method for studying the distribution pattern for opiates metabolites in brain","volume":"73","author":"Guerrini","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okojie, O.M., Javed, F., Chiwome, L., and Hamid, P. (2020). Hypertension and Alcohol: A Mechanistic Approach. Cureus, 12.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.10086"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1136\/heart.86.4.417","article-title":"Dose dependent but non-linear effects of alcohol on the left and right ventricle","volume":"86","author":"Kajander","year":"2001","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01225513","article-title":"Assessment of myocardial vasculature in chronic alcoholics without established cardiomyopathy","volume":"109","author":"Ahmed","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2015.12.035","article-title":"Behavioural and pharmacological characterization of a novel cannabinomimetic adamantane-derived indole, APICA, and considerations on the possible misuse as a psychotropic spice abuse, in C57bl\/6J mice","volume":"265","author":"Cannizzaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2013.02.034","article-title":"Capillary electrophoretic and extraction conditions for the analysis of Catha edulis FORKS active principles","volume":"228","author":"Roda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1097\/01.JAA.0000654368.35241.fc","article-title":"Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: Review of broken heart syndrome","volume":"33","author":"Boyd","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAAPA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.25122\/jml-2018-0067","article-title":"Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: A Brief Review","volume":"13","author":"Amin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Life"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Rao, Z., Hong, F., Agopian, V., Nguyen-Lee, J., Steadman, R.H., Wray, C., and Xia, V.W. (2021). Takotsubo syndrome after liver transplantation: An association with intraoperatively administered epinephrine and fentanyl. Clin. Transplant., 35.","DOI":"10.1111\/ctr.14463"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transproceed.2020.07.021","article-title":"Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy Following Liver Transplantation: A Report of 2 Cases","volume":"53","author":"Shamaa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transplant. Proc."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinre.2018.11.009","article-title":"Severe takotsubo cardiomyopathy following orthotopic liver transplantation: A case series","volume":"43","author":"Maestas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.4065\/81.11.1499","article-title":"Transient stress-induced cardiomyopathy with an \"inverted takotsubo\" contractile pattern","volume":"81","author":"Gevaert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinre.2019.11.010","article-title":"Takotsubo cardiomyopathy triggered by delirium tremens in a cirrhotic patient with acute-on-chronic liver failure: A case report","volume":"44","author":"Hedjoudje","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrtlng.2014.03.007","article-title":"Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy presenting with cardiogenic shock successfully treated with milrinone: A case report","volume":"43","author":"Doyen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heart Lung"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Shaaban, A., Gangwani, M.K., Pendela, V.S., and Vindhyal, M.R. (2023). StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaborators (2018). Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet, 392, 1015\u20131035."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"WHO, Global Health Observatory (2021). Prevalence of Hypertension among Adults Aged 30\u201379 Years, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/data\/gho\/data\/indicators\/indicator-details\/gho\/prevalence-of-hypertension-among-adults-aged-30-79-years."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, L., Chen, W., Wang, T., Zeng, Q., Lai, L., Lai, J., Lin, J., and Tang, S. (2022). Alcohol and Health Outcomes: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses Base on Prospective Cohort Studies. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.859947"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daka, B., Bennet, L., R\u00e5stam, L., Hellgren, M.I., Li, Y., Magnusson, M., and Lindblad, U. (2023). Association between self-reported alcohol consumption and diastolic dysfunction: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 13.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-069937"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Ding, X., Zhang, F., Chen, L., Luo, Q., Xiao, M., Liu, X., Wu, Y., Tang, W., and Qiu, J. (2023). Association between alcohol consumption and risk of stroke among adults: Results from a prospective cohort study in Chongqing, China. BMC Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16361-9"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Labaca, G., Segura-Garc\u00eda, L., \u00c1lvarez, F.J., and Bosque-Prous, M. (2020). Differential health effects of alcoholic beverages: An umbrella review of observational studies. Rev. Esp. Salud P\u00fablica, 94."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000000142","article-title":"Hypertension, alcohol drinking and stroke incidence: A population-based prospective cohort study among inner Mongolians in China","volume":"32","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000003499","article-title":"Dietary factors and hypertension risk in West Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"41","author":"Batubo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vacca, A., Bulfone, L., Cicco, S., Brosolo, G., Da Porto, A., Soardo, G., Catena, C., and Sechi, L.A. (2023). Alcohol Intake and Arterial Hypertension: Retelling of a Multifaceted Story. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15040958"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minzer, S., Losno, R.A., and Casas, R. (2020). The Effect of Alcohol on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Is There New Information?. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12040912"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1007\/s10389-019-01172-3","article-title":"The impact of frequency, pattern, intensity, and type of alcohol consumption, and its combined effect with smoking on inflammation, lipid profile, and the risk of myocardial infarction","volume":"29","author":"Attard","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Public Health"}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/14\/11\/1189\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:53:59Z","timestamp":1760108039000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/14\/11\/1189"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics14111189"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics14111189","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]]}}}