{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T02:34:57Z","timestamp":1791513297163,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]],"date-time":"2024-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1719878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This research received no external funding."}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The impact of ethanol on the fetus is a significant concern as an estimated 2\u20135% of live births may be affected by prenatal alcohol exposure. This exposure can lead to various functional and structural abnormalities in the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, diencephalon, and cerebellum, resulting in region-specific symptoms. The deficits relate to the motor and cognitive domains, affecting, in particular, general intelligence, attention, executive functions, language, memory, visual perception, and social skills\u2014collectively called the fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Recent studies suggest that damage to the developing cerebellum (in form of alcohol exposure) can impair the cortical targets of the cerebello-thalamo-cortical tract. This malfunction in the cerebello-cerebral loop optimization may be due to disruptions in the formation of the foundational elements of the internal model within the developing cerebellum. Alcohol exposure targets multiple nodes in the reciprocal loops between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex. Here, we examine the possibility that prenatal alcohol exposure damages the developing cerebellum and disrupts the connectivity within the cerebello-cerebral neuronal circuits, exacerbating FASD-related cortical dysfunctions. We propose that malfunctions between cerebellar internal model (critically involved in predictions) and cerebral regions contribute to the deficits observed in FASD. Given the major role of the cerebellum in motor, cognitive, and affective functions, we suggest that therapies should target these malfunctions to mitigate the burden of FASD. We discuss the concept of therapies oriented towards malfunctioning cerebello-cerebral loops (TOMCCLs), emphasizing anti-inflammatory strategies and treatments aimed at modulating cerebellar myelination to restore optimal and predictive cerebello-cerebral functions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14131415","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]],"date-time":"2024-07-02T12:58:42Z","timestamp":1719925122000},"page":"1415","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Alcohol Toxicity in the Developing Cerebellum"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0513-1811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Mitoma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Education Promotion Center, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Manto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 des Ataxies C\u00e9r\u00e9belleuses, Service de Neurologie, CHU-Charleroi, 6000 Charleroi, Belgium"},{"name":"Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aasef G.","family":"Shaikh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manto, M.U., and Pandolfo, M. (2002). Alcohol toxicity in the cerebellum: Clinical aspects. The Cerebellum and Its Disorders, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511666469"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mitoma, H., Manto, M., and Shaikh, A.G. (2021). Mechanisms of ethanol-induced cerebellar ataxia: Understanding of neuronal death in the cerebellum. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18168678"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Subramony, S.H., and D\u00fcrr, A. (2012). Nutritional cerebellar degeneration, with comments on its relationship to Wernicke disease and alcoholism. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol 103 (3rd Series) Ataxic Disorders, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-014-0638-4","article-title":"Ethanol-induced cerebellar ataxia: Cellular and molecular mechanisms","volume":"14","author":"Dar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1959.03840060001001","article-title":"A restricted form of cerebellar cortical degeneration occurring in alcoholic patients: Cerebellar cortical degenerations","volume":"1","author":"Victor","year":"1959","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"436","article-title":"Impaired upper limb coordination in alcoholic cerebellar degeneration","volume":"54","author":"Adams","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01952.x","article-title":"Further development of a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"37","author":"Mattson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-3319","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"134","author":"May","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"199","article-title":"Acute and long-term changes in the cerebellum following developmental exposure to ethanol","volume":"2","author":"West","year":"1993","journal-title":"Alcohol. Alcohol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/ddrr.72","article-title":"Neuroimaging and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"15","author":"Norman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh729","article-title":"Cognition, emotion and the cerebellum","volume":"129","author":"Schmahmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx317","article-title":"The cerebellar cognitive affective\/Schmahmann syndrome scale","volume":"141","author":"Hoche","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-015-0674-8","article-title":"Effects of ethanol on the cerebellum: Advances and prospects","volume":"14","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-015-0715-3","article-title":"The cerebellum and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"15","author":"Stoodley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1177\/15353702-0323006-03","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders; An overview with emphasis on changes in brain and behavior","volume":"230","author":"Riley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14040","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review of the neurobehavioral deficits associated with prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"43","author":"Mattson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30150-4","article-title":"Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder","volume":"18","author":"Wozniak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"62","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. An underdiagnosed neuro-development disorder of uncertain prognosis","volume":"79","author":"Solerdelcoll","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicina (B Aires)"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"60","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders\u2014Diagnostic difficulties in the neonatal period and new diagnostic approaches","volume":"23","author":"Wierzba","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mother Child"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"208.e1","article-title":"Neurocognitive and behavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder","volume":"95","year":"2021","journal-title":"An. Pediatr. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0000000000001071","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Current state of diagnosis and treatment","volume":"33","author":"Gomez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popova, S., Dozet, D., Shield, K., Rehm, J., and Burd, L. (2021). Alcohol\u2019s Impact on the Fetus. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103452"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14728","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of adaptive functioning in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, and the effect of IQ, executive functioning, and age","volume":"45","author":"Petrenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-021-01124-7","article-title":"Psychopharmacological treatments in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review","volume":"53","author":"Ritfeld","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-821375-9.00013-X","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the risk of crime","volume":"197","author":"Roozen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basavarajappa, B.S., and Subbanna, S. (2023). Synaptic plasticity abnormalities in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12030442"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-023-00420-x","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"9","author":"Popova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(73)91092-1","article-title":"Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy","volume":"302","author":"Jones","year":"1973","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Guidelines for identifying and referring persons with fetal alcohol syndrome","volume":"54","author":"Bertrand","year":"2005","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2010.01250.x","article-title":"Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"34","author":"Mattson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.21896","article-title":"Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in 4 US communities","volume":"319","author":"May","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21260","article-title":"Regional brain volume reductions relate to facial dysmorphology and neurocognitive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"33","author":"Roussotte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2001.tb00179.x","article-title":"Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"43","author":"Archibald","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/12.8.856","article-title":"Regional brain shape abnormalities persist into adolescence after heavy prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"12","author":"Sowell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1404","article-title":"Extensive deep gray matter volume reductions in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"35","author":"Nardelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2011.01679.x","article-title":"Callosal thickness reductions relate to facial dysmorphology in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"36","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1017\/neu.2015.12","article-title":"Neuroimaging effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on the developing human brain: A magnetic resonance imaging review","volume":"27","author":"Donald","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychiatr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4729","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaa020","article-title":"Graded cerebellar lobular volume deficits in adolescents and young adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)","volume":"30","author":"Sullivan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02533.x","article-title":"Auditory and visual sustained attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to alcohol","volume":"26","author":"Coles","year":"2002","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049608402249","article-title":"Global-local processing in children prenatally exposed to alcohol","volume":"2","author":"Mattson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(97)70099-4","article-title":"Heavy prenatal alcohol exposure with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome leads to IQ deficits","volume":"131","author":"Mattson","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.15288\/jsa.2001.62.239","article-title":"Verbal and nonverbal fluency in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"62","author":"Schonfeld","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532694204Connor","article-title":"Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function","volume":"18","author":"Connor","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1995.tb01024.x","article-title":"Specific impairments in self-regulation in children exposed to alcohol prenatally","volume":"19","author":"Kodituwakku","year":"1995","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9924(90)90016-R","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome: A description of oral motor, articulatory, short-term memory, grammatical, and semantic abilities","volume":"23","author":"Becker","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2010.01177.x","article-title":"Sensory processing and adaptive behavior deficits of children across the fetal alcohol spectrum disorder continuum","volume":"34","author":"Carr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.016","article-title":"Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fine motor coordination and balance: A study of two adult samples","volume":"44","author":"Connor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-019-0152-2","article-title":"Emerging connections between cerebellar development, behavior, and complex brain disorders","volume":"20","author":"Sathyanesan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1974.54.4.957","article-title":"Cerebrocerebellar communication systems","volume":"54","author":"Allen","year":"1974","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.31.060407.125606","article-title":"Cerebellum and nonmotor function","volume":"32","author":"Strick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63956-1.00004-7","article-title":"Functional topography of the human cerebellum","volume":"154","author":"Stoodley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2014.07.016","article-title":"The cerebellum, sensitive periods, and autism","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1963.26.6.994","article-title":"Receptive fields of cells in striate cortex of very young, visually inexperienced kittens","volume":"26","author":"Hubel","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/ddrr.25","article-title":"The cerebellar mutism syndrome and its relation to cerebellar cognitive function and the cerebellar cognitive affective disorder","volume":"14","author":"Wells","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/123.5.1051","article-title":"The cerebellum contributes to higher functions during development: Evidence from a series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumours","volume":"123","author":"Riva","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.20662","article-title":"Cerebellum-small brain but large confusion: A review of selected cerebellar malformations and disruptions","volume":"126A","author":"Boltshauser","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. A"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-011-0312-z","article-title":"Regional cerebellar volumes predict functional outcome in children with cerebellar malformations","volume":"11","author":"Bolduc","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-1041","article-title":"Does cerebellar injury in premature infants contribute to the high prevalence of long-term cognitive, learning, and behavioral disability in survivors?","volume":"120","author":"Limperopoulos","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2804","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1230-21.2021","article-title":"A critical period for development of cerebellar-mediated autism-relevant social behavior","volume":"42","author":"Gibson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spoto, G., Amore, G., Vetri, L., Quatrosi, G., Cafeo, A., Gitto, E., Nicotera, A.G., and Di Rosa, G. (2021). Cerebellum and Prematurity: A complex interplay between disruptive and dysmaturational events. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2021.655164"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2017.227","article-title":"Effects of early nutrition and growth on brain volumes, white matter microstructure, and neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm newborns","volume":"83","author":"Coviello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10039","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1262-16.2016","article-title":"A critical period in Purkinje cell development is mediated by local estradiol synthesis, disrupted by inflammation, and has enduring consequences only for males","volume":"36","author":"Hoffman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-008-0066-4","article-title":"Lesion-symptom mapping of the human cerebellum","volume":"7","author":"Timmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"5170","article-title":"Asynchronous development of cerebellar, cerebello-cortical, and cortico-cortical functional networks in infancy, childhood, and adulthood","volume":"27","author":"Kipping","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoodley, C.J. (2014). Distinct regions of the cerebellum show gray matter decreases in autism, ADHD, and developmental dyslexia. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2014.00092"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cundari, M., Vestberg, S., Gustafsson, P., Gorcenco, S., and Rasmussen, A. (2023). Neurocognitive and cerebellar function in ADHD, autism and spinocerebellar ataxia. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2023.1168666"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-2282","article-title":"Impaired trophic interactions between the cerebellum and the cerebrum among preterm infants","volume":"116","author":"Limperopoulos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2413","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp088","article-title":"Decreased connectivity and cerebellar activity in autism during motor task performance","volume":"132","author":"Mostofsky","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-015-0052-x","article-title":"Aberrant functioning of the theory-of-mind network in children and adolescents with autism","volume":"6","author":"Kana","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2013.257","article-title":"Cerebellar morphology and the effects of stimulant medications in youths with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder","volume":"39","author":"Ivanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2009.08.013","article-title":"Methylphenidate normalises activation and functional connectivity deficits in attention and motivation networks in medication-naive children with ADHD during a rewarded continuous performance task","volume":"57","author":"Rubia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7569931","article-title":"An internal model for sensorimotor integration","volume":"269","author":"Wolpert","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1309","article-title":"Optimality principles in sensorimotor control","volume":"7","author":"Todorov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15345","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2151-12.2012","article-title":"Predictive and feedback performance errors are signaled in the simple spike discharge of individual Purkinje cells","volume":"32","author":"Popa","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, H., Ishikawa, T., Lee, J., and Kakei, S. (2020). The cerebro-cerebellum as a locus of forward model. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2020.00019"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-018-0996-4","article-title":"Neural evidence of the cerebellum as a state predictor","volume":"18","author":"Tanaka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mitoma, H., Kakei, S., Tanaka, H., and Manto, M. (2023). Morphological and functional principles governing the plasticity reserve in the cerebellum: The cortico-deep cerebellar nuclei loop model. Biology, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12111435"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00266.2007","article-title":"Sensory prediction errors drive cerebellum-dependent adaptation of reaching","volume":"98","author":"Tseng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-019-01091-9","article-title":"Consensus paper. Cerebellar reserve: From cerebellar physiology to cerebellar disorders","volume":"19","author":"Mitoma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0193(1996)4:3<174::AID-HBM3>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"From movement to thought: Anatomic substrates of the cerebellar contribution to cognitive processing","volume":"4","author":"Schmahmann","year":"1996","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/35081558","article-title":"Genetic regulation of cerebellar development","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2009.06.008","article-title":"Translocation of a \u201cwinner\u201d climbing fiber to the Purkinje cell dendrite and subsequent elimination of \u201closers\u201d from the soma in developing cerebellum","volume":"63","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1080\/14734220500527385","article-title":"Organization and remodeling of the olivocerebellar climbing fiber projection","volume":"5","author":"Sugihara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1002\/wdev.65","article-title":"Development of the cerebellum: From gene expression patterns to circuits maps","volume":"2","author":"White","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12451","article-title":"Research Review: Executive function deficits in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder\u2014A meta-analysis","volume":"57","author":"Kingdon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-007-9013-0","article-title":"Occipital-temporal reduction and sustained visual attention deficit in prenatal alcohol exposed adults","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2007.00443.x","article-title":"Prenatal alcohol exposure affects frontal-striatal BOLD response during inhibitory control","volume":"31","author":"Fryer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcoholism Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/1866-1955-4-12","article-title":"Comparison of spatial working memory in children with prenatal alcohol exposure and those diagnosed with ADHD; A functional magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"4","author":"Malisza","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurodevelop. Disord."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.24797","article-title":"Ethanol modulation of cerebellar neuroinflammation in a postnatal mouse model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"99","author":"Kane","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2021.07.003","article-title":"Ethanol effects on cerebellar myelination in a postnatal mouse model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"96","author":"Douglas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10098","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5004-12.2013","article-title":"Longitudinal MRI reveals altered trajectory of brain development during childhood and adolescence in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"33","author":"Treit","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14484","article-title":"The effect of chronic exposure and thiamine deficiency on myelin-related genes in the cortex and the cerebellum","volume":"44","author":"Chatterton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/14\/13\/1415\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:09:18Z","timestamp":1760108958000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/14\/13\/1415"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics14131415"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics14131415","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]]}}}