{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T16:59:13Z","timestamp":1792169953583,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]],"date-time":"2024-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Jouf University","award":["DGSSR-2024-02-01170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DGSSR-2024-02-01170"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial disease that mainly affects the lungs, but it can also impact other parts of the body, such as the brain, bones, and kidneys. The disease is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis and spreads through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. TB can be inactive or active; in its active state, noticeable symptoms appear, and it can be transmitted to others. There are ongoing challenges in fighting TB, including resistance to medications, co-infections, and limited resources in areas heavily affected by the disease. These issues make it challenging to eradicate TB. Objective: Timely and precise diagnosis is essential for effective control, especially since TB often goes undetected and untreated, particularly in remote and under-resourced locations. Chest X-ray (CXR) images are commonly used to diagnose TB. However, difficulties can arise due to unusual findings on X-rays and a shortage of radiologists in high-infection areas. Method: To address these challenges, a computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system that uses the vision transformer (ViT) technique has been developed to accurately identify TB in CXR images. This innovative hybrid CAD approach combines ViT with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and machine learning (ML) techniques for TB classification, introducing a new method in this field. In the hybrid CAD system, ViT is used for deep feature extraction as a base model, PCA is used to reduce feature dimensions, and various ML methods are used to classify TB. This system allows for quickly identifying TB, enabling timely medical action and improving patient outcomes. Additionally, it streamlines the diagnostic process, reducing time and costs for patients and lessening the workload on healthcare professionals. The TB chest X-ray dataset was utilized to train and evaluate the proposed CAD system, which underwent pre-processing techniques like resizing, scaling, and noise removal to improve diagnostic accuracy. Results: The performance of our CAD model was assessed against existing models, yielding excellent results. The model achieved remarkable metrics: an average precision of 99.90%, recall of 99.52%, F1-score of 99.71%, accuracy of 99.84%, false negative rate (FNR) of 0.48%, specificity of 99.52%, and negative predictive value (NPV) of 99.90%. Conclusions: This evaluation highlights the superior performance of our model compared to the latest available classifiers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14232736","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]],"date-time":"2024-12-05T04:13:03Z","timestamp":1733371983000},"page":"2736","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["A Robust Tuberculosis Diagnosis Using Chest X-Rays Based on a Hybrid Vision Transformer and Principal Component Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6888-5114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sameh Abd","family":"El-Ghany","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Aljouf, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2504-6051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Elmogy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Technology Department, Faculty of Computers and Information, Mansoura University, Mansoura P.O. Box 35516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9658-0972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahmood","family":"A. Mahmood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Aljouf, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4846-101X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. A.","family":"Abd El-Aziz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Aljouf, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramaniam, S., Raju, N., Ganesan, A., Rajavel, N., Chenniappan, M., Prakash, C., Pramanik, A., Basak, A.K., and Dixit, S. (2022). Artificial intelligence technologies for forecasting air pollution and human health a narrative review. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14169951"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2022.105490","article-title":"Recent advancements in deep learning based lung cancer detection: A systematic review","volume":"116","author":"Dodia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. 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