{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T12:31:20Z","timestamp":1790857880555,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737590400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Foundation of Wenzhou Basic Scientific Research Project","award":["G20220003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G20220003"]}]},{"name":"the Foundation of Wenzhou Basic Scientific Research Project","award":["5120200913674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5120200913674"]}]},{"name":"the Ministry of Education (MOE, Korea) and National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["G20220003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G20220003"]}]},{"name":"the Ministry of Education (MOE, Korea) and National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["5120200913674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5120200913674"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bone age (BA) reflects skeletal maturity and is crucial in clinical and forensic contexts, particularly for growth assessment, adult height prediction, and managing conditions like short stature and precocious puberty, often using X-ray, MRI, CT, or ultrasound imaging. Traditional BA assessment methods, including the Greulich-Pyle and Tanner\u2013Whitehouse techniques, compare morphological changes to reference atlases. Despite their effectiveness, factors like genetics and environment complicate evaluations, emphasizing the need for new methods that account for comprehensive variations in skeletal maturity. The limitations of classical BA assessment methods increase the demand for automated solutions. The first automated tool, HANDX, was introduced in 1989. Researchers now focus on developing reliable artificial intelligence (AI)-driven tools, utilizing machine learning and deep learning techniques to improve accuracy and efficiency in BA evaluations, addressing traditional methods\u2019 shortcomings. Recent reviews on BA assessment methods rarely compare AI-based approaches across imaging technologies. This article explores advancements in BA estimation, focusing on machine learning methods and their clinical implications while providing a historical context and highlighting each approach\u2019s benefits and limitations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15030257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T04:54:31Z","timestamp":1737608071000},"page":"257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Bone Age Assessment Using Various Medical Imaging Techniques Enhanced by Artificial Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Wenhao","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Technology Center, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China"},{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pei","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children\u2019s Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Le","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Technology Center, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenbiao","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Technology Center, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liwei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State-Owned Assets and Laboratory Management Office, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"211","article-title":"Bone age assessment methods: A critical review","volume":"30","author":"Hassan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pak. 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