{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:38:54Z","timestamp":1787027934723,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]],"date-time":"2025-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016208","name":"Bilecik \u015eeyh Edebali University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021-01.B\u015eE\u00dc.03-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021-01.B\u015eE\u00dc.03-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016208","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that damages the myelin sheath of the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. Although MS lesions in the brain are more frequently investigated, MS lesions in the cervical spinal cord (CSC) can be much more specific for the diagnosis of the disease. Furthermore, as lesion burden in the CSC is directly related to disease progression, the presence of lesions in the CSC may help to differentiate MS from other neurological diseases. Methods: In this study, two novel deep learning models based on fractal architectures are proposed for the automatic detection and segmentation of MS lesions in the CSC by improving the convolutional and connection structures used in the layers of the U-Net architecture. In our previous study, we introduced the FractalSpiNet architecture by incorporating fractal convolutional block structures into the U-Net framework to develop a deeper network for segmenting MS lesions in the CPC. In this study, to improve the detection of smaller structures and finer details in the images, an attention mechanism is integrated into the FractalSpiNet architecture, resulting in the Att-FractalSpiNet model. In addition, in the second hybrid model, a fractal convolutional block is incorporated into the skip connection structure of the U-Net architecture, resulting in the development of the Con-FractalU-Net model. Results: Experimental studies were conducted using U-Net, FractalSpiNet, Con-FractalU-Net, and Att-FractalSpiNet architectures to detect the CSC region and the MS lesions within its boundaries. In segmenting the CSC region, the proposed Con-FractalU-Net architecture achieved the highest Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC) score of 98.89%. Similarly, in detecting MS lesions within the CSC region, the Con-FractalU-Net model again achieved the best performance with a DSC score of 91.48%. Conclusions: For segmentation of the CSC region and detection of MS lesions, the proposed fractal-based Con-FractalU-Net and Att-FractalSpiNet architectures achieved higher scores than the baseline U-Net architecture, particularly in segmenting small and complex structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15081041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,20]],"date-time":"2025-04-20T20:15:06Z","timestamp":1745180106000},"page":"1041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Fractal-Based Architectures with Skip Connections and Attention Mechanism for Improved Segmentation of MS Lesions in Cervical Spinal Cord"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Rukiye","family":"Polattimur","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, Institute of Graduate, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, 11230 Bilecik, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3998-1542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehmet S\u00fcleyman","family":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Technology, S\u00f6\u011f\u00fct Vocational School, Bilecik \u015eeyh Edebali University, S\u00f6g\u00fct, 11600 Bilecik, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6559-1399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emre","family":"Dand\u0131l","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, 11230 Bilecik, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2019.02.011","article-title":"Polymorph segmentation representation for medical image computing","volume":"171","author":"Pinter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. 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