{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T01:17:18Z","timestamp":1780449438051,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,9]],"date-time":"2025-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education of Taiwan","award":["911I121"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["911I121"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education of Taiwan","award":["912I2600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["912I2600"]}]},{"name":"SPARK Taiwan Program","award":["20010101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20010101"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["MOST 105-2221-E-030-007-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 105-2221-E-030-007-MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NSTC 111-2221-E-030-015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 111-2221-E-030-015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NSTC 113-2221-E-030-004-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 113-2221-E-030-004-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Current methods for diagnosing color vision deficiency (CVD) generally fall into two categories: computer-based tests that lack full-color lighting and non-computer-based tests that provide full-color lighting. Most of these approaches face several limitations, including inaccurate illumination of test samples, inconsistent test durations, learning effects, and the need for highly skilled operators. Methods: To address these limitations, this study introduces the Computerized Full-Color Assessment (CFCA) method, which employs a full-color light generation system based on 16 color spectra selected from the classical Farnsworth D-15 (D-15) test. In the CFCA method, each pair of colors generated by the system was presented under software control, and participants indicated within three seconds whether the colors were different. The total test duration was limited to 5 min. The method was validated using 10 normal trichromats and 11 patients with CVDs. Results: Results obtained from the CFCA were compared with those from the classical D-15 test using quantitative parameters, including confusion angle (CA) and confusion index (CI). Correlations between the two methods were analyzed. The p-values for CA and CI are 0.688 and 0.587, respectively, and the correlation coefficients are 0.821 for CA and 0.884 for CI, indicating a strong and statistically significant correlation. Conclusions: The CFCA method provides an accurate, convenient, and efficient tool for diagnosing CVD, with particular advantages for use in young children. It enables an expanded range of color choices beyond the 16 discs of the D-15 test and allows for the generation of individualized visual spectra, which can be applied in the design of customized color-vision-correcting glasses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15222837","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T10:35:31Z","timestamp":1762770931000},"page":"2837","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Computerized Full-Color Assessment for Distinguishing Color Vision Deficiency"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4494-7947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin-Cherng","family":"Hsu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"},{"name":"Center for Astronautical Physics and Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan 237209, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chia-Ying","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Fu Jen Catholic University Hospital, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chih-Hsuan","family":"Shih","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Space Agency, Hsinchu City 300091, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shao-Rong","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Astronautical Physics and Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan 237209, Taiwan"},{"name":"Diopter Precision Taiwan Co., Ltd., Pingzhen Dist., Taoyan 324032, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hsing-Yu","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Astronautical Physics and Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan 237209, Taiwan"},{"name":"Taiwan Space Agency, Hsinchu City 300091, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Space Systems Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City 300093, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7513-0251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yung-Shin","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2004.06.016","article-title":"Modeling color percepts of dichromats","volume":"44","author":"Wachtler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2015.11.004","article-title":"Acquired color vision deficiency","volume":"61","author":"Simunovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/349235a0","article-title":"Changes in colour appearance following post-receptoral adaptation","volume":"349","author":"Webster","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6257(87)90070-1","article-title":"Acquired dyschromatopsias","volume":"32","author":"Hart","year":"1987","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z.H., Yan, L., Zhang, W.L., Qi, J., An, W.J., and Yao, K. (2024). Dyschromatopsia: A comprehensive analysis of mechanisms and cutting-edge treatments for color vision deficiency. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1265630"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almustanyir, A. (2025). A Global Perspective of Color Vision Deficiency: Awareness, Diagnosis, and Lived Experiences. Healthcare, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare13162031"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1945.00890190297005","article-title":"Tests for detection and analysis of color blindness; an evaluation of the Ishihara test","volume":"34","author":"Hardy","year":"1945","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.33.000568","article-title":"The Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue and dichotomous tests for color vision","volume":"33","author":"Farnsworth","year":"1943","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001420","article-title":"Limitations and Precautions in the Use of the Farnsworth-Munsell Dichotomous D-15 Test","volume":"96","author":"Dain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.45.000514","article-title":"Some problems related to testing color vision with the Nagel anomaloscope","volume":"45","author":"SCHMIDT","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2005.01.002","article-title":"Numerical confusion errors in Ishihara testing: Findings from a population-based study","volume":"140","author":"Cosstick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.431987","article-title":"Evaluation of the Waggoner computerized D15 color vision test using an iPad device","volume":"38","author":"Almustanyir","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A Opt. Image Sci. Vis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000000551","article-title":"Evaluation of the Waggoner Computerized Color Vision Test","volume":"92","author":"Ng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almustanyir, A., Alhazmi, M., Aldarwesh, A., Almutairi, M.S., Almahubi, M., Alateeq, A., Alqahtani, T., Alanazi, M., Alotaibi, S., and Alghamdi, M. (2025). Age-Related Effects on the Color Discrimination Threshold. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/life15071074"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"3905","article-title":"Genetic analysis, the Color Assessment and Diagnosis (CAD) test, and the Cambridge Color Test (CCT) yield the same color vision classifications in humans","volume":"56","author":"Honnell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108390","article-title":"Empirical tests of the effectiveness of EnChroma multi-notch filters for enhancing color vision in deuteranomaly","volume":"218","author":"Somers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108381","article-title":"Predicted effectiveness of EnChroma multi-notch filters for enhancing color perception in anomalous trichromats","volume":"218","author":"Somers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18075","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.451326","article-title":"Discrimination of natural colors in anomalous trichromacy and the effects of EnChroma and Vino filters","volume":"31","author":"Marques","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28693","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.028693","article-title":"Do EnChroma glasses improve color vision for colorblind subjects?","volume":"26","author":"Valero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Hsu, J.C. (2024). Color-Light Generation System and Method of Using the Same. (U.S. Patent 11,934,014)."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2024.102831","article-title":"Evaluation of SeeColors filters for color vision correction and comparative analysis with EnChroma glasses","volume":"85","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"38","article-title":"The use of colour difference vectors in diagnosing congenital colour vision deficiencies with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test","volume":"12","author":"Vingrys","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"50","article-title":"A quantitative scoring technique for panel tests of color vision","volume":"29","author":"Vingrys","year":"1988","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002864","article-title":"Correlation Coefficients: Appropriate Use and Interpretation","volume":"126","author":"Schober","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Clarke, W. (2016). ; American Association for Clinical Chemistry. Contemporary Practice in Clinical Chemistry, AACC Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/col.22596","article-title":"Color vision assessment-1: Visual signals that affect the results of the Farnsworth D-15 test","volume":"46","author":"Evans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Color Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952523808080231","article-title":"Failure of concordance of the Farnsworth D15 test and the Nagel anomaloscope matching range in anomalous trichromatism","volume":"25","author":"Birch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vis. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.3357\/AMHP.4391.2016","article-title":"A Performance Comparison of Color Vision Tests for Military Screening","volume":"87","author":"Walsh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aerosp. Med. Hum. Perf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.identj.2023.12.009","article-title":"A Comparative Study of the Sensitivity and Specificity of the Ishihara Test With Various Displays","volume":"74","author":"Klinke","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-025-03559-6","article-title":"Diagnostic performance of color vision tests for color vision deficiency: A network meta-analysis on comparisons of multiple color vision tests","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1002\/col.22669","article-title":"Quantitative scoring methods of the Farnsworth D15 and Waggoner computerized D15 color vision tests in clinical practice","volume":"46","author":"Almustanyir","year":"2021","journal-title":"Color Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A1","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.381305","article-title":"Predicting the Farnsworth-Munsell D15 and Holmes-Wright-A lantern outcomes with computer-based color vision tests","volume":"37","author":"Almustanyir","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/15\/22\/2837\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T05:22:46Z","timestamp":1762838566000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/15\/22\/2837"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,9]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics15222837"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics15222837","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,9]]}}}