{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T16:42:08Z","timestamp":1790095328710,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":209,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The stellate ganglion (SG), formed by the fusion of the inferior cervical and first thoracic sympathetic ganglia in approximately 80% of individuals, plays crucial roles in cardiac innervation, pain management, and autonomic regulation. This review examines the anatomical variations, histological structure, clinical applications, and therapeutic implications of the SG and stellate ganglion block (SGB), presenting original high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evidence of SG visualization, an underutilized approach in autonomic nervous system research. Methods: We conducted a comprehensive literature review of anatomical, physiological, and clinical studies on the SG, incorporating original anatomical dissections and high-resolution MRI. Contemporary research on SGB applications, complications, and mechanisms of action was analysed and correlated with imaging characteristics. Results: The SG demonstrates significant anatomical variability, including the presence of intermediate ganglia, accessory nerve pathways, and variable relationships with surrounding vascular structures. Our original MRI imaging consistently identified the SG at the thoracic inlet, anterior to the neck of the first rib, lateral to the longus colli muscle, and posterior to the vertebral artery, demonstrating that advanced imaging can reliably visualize this critical autonomic structure and its anatomical variants. Histologically, it contains typical sympathetic architecture, comprising postganglionic neurons, satellite glial cells, and specialized SIF cells that modulate ganglionic transmission. SGB shows therapeutic efficacy across diverse conditions, including cardiac arrhythmias, chronic pain syndromes, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep disorders, and immune dysfunction. The procedure\u2019s mechanisms involve both direct sympathetic blockade and complex neuroimmune pathways that affect central autonomic centers and lymphoid organs. Complications include vascular injury, pneumothorax, and nerve blocks affecting the recurrent laryngeal and phrenic nerves. Conclusions: The SG represents a critical autonomic structure with expanding clinical applications. This work advances the field by demonstrating that high-resolution MRI can consistently and non-invasively visualize the SG and its anatomical variations, knowledge previously mostly limited to cadaveric studies. Understanding these imaging-defined anatomical variations is essential for optimizing therapeutic interventions. Advanced imaging guidance integrated with comprehensive anatomical knowledge is crucial for maximizing efficacy while minimizing complications in stellate ganglion block procedures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15222911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T15:38:09Z","timestamp":1763393889000},"page":"2911","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Anatomy, Imaging, and Clinical Significance of the Cervicothoracic (Stellate) Ganglion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8723-0540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mugurel Constantin","family":"Rusu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department 1, Faculty of Dentistry, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1464-5021","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ionu\u0163 M\u0103d\u0103lin","family":"Munteanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Cardiovascular Diseases of Timi\u015foara, Clinic of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timi\u015foara, Gheorghe Adam Street, No. 13A, 300310 Timi\u015foara, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra Diana","family":"Vrapciu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department 1, Faculty of Dentistry, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adelina Maria","family":"Jianu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, \u201cVictor Babe\u0219\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timi\u0219oara, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4130-9402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sorin","family":"Hostiuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Legal Medicine and Bioethics, Faculty of Dentistry, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4655-4574","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R\u0103zvan Costin","family":"Tudose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department 1, Faculty of Dentistry, \u201cCarol Davila\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Research Department, \u201cDr. Carol Davila\u201d Central Military Emergency Hospital, 010825 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7090-7677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrei Gheorghe Marius","family":"Motoc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, \u201cVictor Babe\u0219\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timi\u0219oara, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Feneis, H., and Dauber, W. (2000). Pocket Atlas of Human Anatomy: Based on the International Nomenclature, Thieme."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.20214","article-title":"Cervico-thoracic ganglion: Its clinical implications","volume":"19","author":"Pather","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s00276-024-03533-4","article-title":"Anatomical and histological classification of the stellate ganglion: Implications for clinical nerve blocks","volume":"47","author":"Samrid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Surg. Radiol. Anat."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"448","article-title":"The anatomy of the sympathetic trunks in man","volume":"93","author":"Wrete","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnad011","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block for non-pain indications: A scoping review","volume":"24","author":"Feigin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pain. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000007014","article-title":"Multicenter Prospective Randomized Comparison of Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Versus Thoracic Paravertebral Block for Sympathetic Blockade in Chronic Upper Extremity Pain","volume":"140","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1002\/ibra.12047","article-title":"Stellate ganglion intervention for chronic pain: A review","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ibrain"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.102.7.742","article-title":"Treating electrical storm: Sympathetic blockade versus advanced cardiac life support-guided therapy","volume":"102","author":"Nademanee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1007\/s12630-021-02068-1","article-title":"Stellate ganglion blockade for treating refractory electrical storm: A historical cohort study","volume":"68","author":"Reinertsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007118","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.118.007118","article-title":"Effective Use of Percutaneous Stellate Ganglion Blockade in Patients with Electrical Storm","volume":"12","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2017.4612","article-title":"Ultrasound guided injections of botulinum toxin type A into stellate ganglion to treat insomnia","volume":"14","author":"Ding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1807","article-title":"Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block improves sleep quality in elderly patients early after thoracoscopic surgery for lung cancer: A randomized controlled study","volume":"42","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. South. Med. Univ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, N., Ma, Q., Zhou, M., Yang, L., Wang, W., and Wang, Y. (2025). Efficacy and exploratory analysis of potential mechanisms of stellate ganglion block in alleviating sleep disturbance in generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial excluding comorbid depression. Front. Neurol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1554841"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"10233","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of stellate ganglion block with different volumes of ropivacaine to improve sleep quality in patients with insomnia: A comparative study","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.10632","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block alleviates postoperative sleep disturbance in patients undergoing radical surgery for gastrointestinal malignancies","volume":"19","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sleep. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s40122-022-00473-y","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Block Improves Postoperative Sleep Quality and Analgesia in Patients with Breast Cancer: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pain. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110000","article-title":"How does stellate ganglion block alleviate immunologically-linked disorders?","volume":"144","author":"Lipov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.36076\/ppj.2000\/3\/294","article-title":"Cervical sympathetic and stellate ganglion blocks","volume":"3","author":"Elias","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pain. Physician"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1093\/ejcts\/ezab445","article-title":"Anatomical variations of the upper thoracic sympathetic chain: A review","volume":"61","author":"Vanlommel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1123","article-title":"Incidence of vertebral ganglion in cervical sympathetic trunk","volume":"14","author":"Manuel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Sci. Biotechnol. Pharma Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1177\/000348949310200511","article-title":"Effects of stellate ganglion stimulation on bilateral cochlear blood flow","volume":"102","author":"Ren","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1067\/mtc.2002.119340","article-title":"Anatomic variations of the T2 nerve root (including the nerve of Kuntz) and their implications for sympathectomy","volume":"123","author":"Chung","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aanat.2022.151999","article-title":"Anatomical variation of the sympathetic trunk and aberrant rami communicantes and their clinical implications","volume":"245","author":"Filion","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Anat."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.athoracsur.2008.05.080","article-title":"Thoracoscopic and anatomic landmarks of Kuntz\u2019s nerve: Implications for sympathetic surgery","volume":"86","author":"Marhold","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Thorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1510\/icvts.2011.269050","article-title":"Does the nerve of Kuntz exist?","volume":"13","author":"McCormack","year":"2011","journal-title":"Interact. Cardiovasc. Thorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"659","article-title":"The nerve of Kuntz: Incidence, location and variations","volume":"6","author":"Zaidi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.5603\/FM.a2019.0115","article-title":"Vertebral arteries bilaterally passing through stellate (cervicothoracic) ganglion","volume":"79","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2020","journal-title":"Folia Morphol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5856","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000005856","article-title":"Ultrasound-guided pulsed radiofrequency treatment of the cervical sympathetic chain for complex regional pain syndrome: A retrospective observational study","volume":"96","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-197907000-00016","article-title":"Convulsions during stellate ganglion block: A case report","volume":"58","author":"Korevaar","year":"1979","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-014-0424-5","article-title":"Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block: Safety and efficacy","volume":"18","author":"Narouze","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pain. Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.4103\/JMU.JMU_34_21","article-title":"Atypical Course of Vertebral Artery Identified by Ultrasound Prescan before Performing a Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"30","author":"Oh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.4103\/ijpn.ijpn_21_23","article-title":"Aberrant Branch of Vertebral Artery: A Needling Challenge for Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"37","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ind. J. Pain."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.61309\/javccr.1000113","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Encircling Atypical Vertebral Artery","volume":"2","author":"Torres","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anat. Var. Clin. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tudose, R.C., Rusu, M.C., and Hostiuc, S. (2023). The Vertebral Artery: A Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis of the Current Literature. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13122036"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Annabi, E.H., Arefieg, J., and Shiller, S. (2017). Stellate Ganglion Blockade. Treatment of Chronic Pain Conditions: A Comprehensive Handbook, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6976-0_40"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.158.3.1739014","article-title":"MR imaging of the stellate ganglion: Normal appearance","volume":"158","author":"Hogan","year":"1992","journal-title":"AJR Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakajo, M., Mori, S., Nakayama, H., Yoshiura, T., Xu, S., Rimmer, M., Sato, T., Sato, M., Malik, V., and Salamon, N. (2025). Three-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Stellate Ganglion. Clin. Anat., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.70006"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199508000-00026","article-title":"The stellate ganglion in magnetic resonance imaging: A quantification of the anatomic variability","volume":"83","author":"Slappendel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"FIPAT Terminology (2025, February 01). FIPAT. Terminologia Anatomica. FIPAT.library.dal.ca. Available online: https:\/\/neuron.mefst.hr\/docs\/katedre\/anatomija\/medicina\/Terminologia%20anatomica\/Terminologia-Anatomica-2nd-Ed-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"129","article-title":"The Main Peripheral Connections of the Human Sympathetic Nervous System","volume":"59","author":"Potts","year":"1925","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.20055","article-title":"Surgical anatomy of the cervical sympathetic trunk","volume":"18","author":"Kiray","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-005-0462-1","article-title":"The autonomic nervous system of the human heart with special reference to its origin, course, and peripheral distribution","volume":"209","author":"Kawashima","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anat. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Rouviere, H., and Delmas, A. (1985). Anatomie Humaine. T\u00eate et Cou, Masson."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1002\/aja.1001240203","article-title":"Sympathetic nerve pathways to the human heart, and their variations","volume":"124","author":"Ellison","year":"1969","journal-title":"Am. J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Standring, S., Anand, N., Birch, R., Collins, P., Crossman, A., Gleeson, M., Jawaheer, G., Smith, A.L., Spratt, J.D., and Stringer, M.D. (2016). Gray\u2019s Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/27.12.616","article-title":"The anatomical approach in stellate ganglion injection","volume":"27","author":"Walls","year":"1955","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.21266","article-title":"An anatomical investigation of the cervicothoracic ganglion","volume":"25","author":"Marcer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01784315","article-title":"The nerve loops crossing below the subclavian artery and their anatomical variations","volume":"6","author":"Caliot","year":"1984","journal-title":"Anat. Clin."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"166","article-title":"The ansa subclavia: A review of the literature","volume":"67","author":"Loukas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Folia Morphol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1533-2500.2009.00310.x","article-title":"The vertebral artery is unlikely to be the sole source of vascular complications occurring during stellate ganglion block","volume":"10","author":"Huntoon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-017-2354-y","article-title":"A lateral paracarotid approach for ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block with a linear probe","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1097\/AAP.0000000000000644","article-title":"Risk Vessels of Retropharyngeal Hematoma During Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"42","author":"Hirota","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2010.06590.x","article-title":"The Clarus Video System as a useful diagnostic tool","volume":"66","author":"Costa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1213\/ane.0b013e3181a20197","article-title":"Beware of the \u201cserpentine\u201d inferior thyroid artery while performing stellate ganglion block","volume":"109","author":"Narouze","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1097\/AAP.0b013e31823d40fe","article-title":"Ultrasound imaging to estimate risk of esophageal and vascular puncture after conventional stellate ganglion block","volume":"37","author":"Siegenthaler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-2018-100127","article-title":"Complications associated with stellate ganglion nerve block: A systematic review","volume":"44","author":"Goel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Paturet, G. (1964). Traite d\u2019Anatomie Humaine, Masson."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Sebileau, P. (1891). L\u2019Appareil Suspenseur de la Pl\u00e8vre, G. Steinheil."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Ionescu, T. (1923). Le Sympathique Cervico-Thoracique, Masson."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1097\/RLU.0000000000001518","article-title":"68Ga-PSMA-HBED Uptake on Cervicothoracic (Stellate) Ganglia, a Common Pitfall on PET\/CT","volume":"42","author":"Beheshti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.1952.tb01454.x","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block","volume":"7","year":"1952","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-00115550-199217020-00003","article-title":"The spread of solutions during stellate ganglion block","volume":"17","author":"Hogan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2482","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-015-4112-6","article-title":"The thoracic duct: Clinical importance, anatomic variation, imaging, and embolization","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1550","article-title":"Detection of the Stellate and Thoracic Sympathetic Chain Ganglia with High-Resolution 3D-CISS MR Imaging","volume":"39","author":"Chaudhry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2815","DOI":"10.2147\/JPR.S134775","article-title":"Ganglion blocks as a treatment of pain: Current perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Gunduz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pain. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-025-01387-y","article-title":"The Ganglia of the Head and Neck: Clinical Relevance for the Interventional Pain Physician","volume":"29","author":"Millhouse","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2020.102674","article-title":"Human adult cardiac autonomic innervation: Controversies in anatomical knowledge and relevance for cardiac neuromodulation","volume":"227","author":"Wink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"301","article-title":"Some Observations on the Cervical Sympathetic in Man","volume":"62","author":"Axford","year":"1928","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-198812000-00006","article-title":"Nerves accompanying the vertebral artery and their clinical relevance","volume":"13","author":"Xiuqing","year":"1988","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delmas, J., and Laux, G. (1933). Anatomie M\u00e9dico-Chirurgicale du Syst\u00e8me Nerveux V\u00e9g\u00e9tatif (Sympathique & Parasympathique), Masson et Cie.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-193402000-00090"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"49","article-title":"Ricerche anatomo-comparative sul Simpatico cervicale","volume":"30","author":"Mannu","year":"1914","journal-title":"Int. Mschr. Anat. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1002\/aja.1000480208","article-title":"The cervical part of the gangliated cord, with special reference to its connections with the spinal nerves and certain cerebral nerves","volume":"48","author":"Siwe","year":"1931","journal-title":"Am. J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Raj, P.P., Lou, L., Erdine, S., Staats, P.S., Waldman, S.D., Racz, G., Hammer, M., Niv, D., and Ruiz-Lopez, R. (2008). Sympathetic Blocks of the Head and Neck. Interventional Pain Management: Image-Guided Procedures, Saunders Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0188-4409(03)00017-1","article-title":"Circuits and projections of cat stellate ganglion","volume":"34","author":"Nozdrachev","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2982.1981.tb00003.x","article-title":"The anatomy and physiology of the vertebral nerve in relation to cervical migraine","volume":"1","author":"Bogduk","year":"1981","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2017.04.008","article-title":"The vertebral nerve: A comprehensive review of its form and function","volume":"41","author":"Johal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1007\/s12565-010-0096-0","article-title":"Anatomy of the cardiac nervous system with clinical and comparative morphological implications","volume":"86","author":"Kawashima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anat. Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.20482","article-title":"The vertebral nerve revisited","volume":"20","author":"Tubbs","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Tripathy, K., Simakurthy, S., and Jan, A. (2025). Ciliospinal Reflex, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verlinden, T.J., van Dijk, P., Herrler, A., de Gier-de Vries, C., Lamers, W.H., and K\u00f6hler, S.E. (2018). The human phrenic nerve serves as a morphological conduit for autonomic nerves and innervates the caval body of the diaphragm. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30145-x"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9149(86)90908-2","article-title":"Anatomy of human extrinsic cardiac nerves and ganglia","volume":"57","author":"Janes","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., and Zheng, L. (2022). The Mechanism of Cardiac Sympathetic Activity Assessment Methods: Current Knowledge. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.931219"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0b013e318241be2a","article-title":"Role of cardiac reflexes in the control of heart rate: What does the anesthesiologist need to know?","volume":"114","author":"Sear","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(80)90207-3","article-title":"The effect of left dorsal and ventral ansa subclavian transection on cardiac changes during behavioral stress in dogs","volume":"25","author":"Galosy","year":"1980","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1067\/msy.2000.109966","article-title":"The \u201cfalse\u201d nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve","volume":"128","author":"Raffaelli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.5152\/UCD.2013.21","article-title":"Fusion of a cervical sympathetic ganglion with the recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve: A case of false positive non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve","volume":"29","author":"Yetisir","year":"2013","journal-title":"Turk. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forman, S.M., Kuhnert, S., Glueck, E., Brauer, P., Lemmons, C., Kilmer, M., and Barry, A. (2022). An Exploration of the Sympathetic Component of the Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve. FASEB J., 36.","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.2022.36.S1.R3815"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215100100325","article-title":"Anatomy of the recurrent laryngeal nerve: A redescription","volume":"100","author":"Steinberg","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.22652","article-title":"The subdiaphragmatic part of the phrenic nerve\u2014Morphometry and connections to autonomic ganglia","volume":"29","author":"Loukas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Fran\u00e7ois-Franck, C.A. (1904). Cours du Coll\u00e8ge de France de 1880 \u00e0 1904, Doin."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Fran\u00e7ois-Franck, C.A. (1875). Recherches Sur l\u2019Anatomie et la Physiologie des Nerfs Vasculaires de la T\u00eate. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Paris]."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Hollinshead, W. (1982). The Neck. Anatomy for Surgeons: The Head and Neck, J. B. Lippincott Company. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s00276-008-0421-7","article-title":"The terminal insertional segments and communications of the vertebral nerve in the human cervical region","volume":"31","author":"Yan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Surg. Radiol. Anat."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1001\/archsurg.1957.01280090128016","article-title":"Vertebral nerve and plexus; components, anatomical relationships, and surgical implications","volume":"74","author":"Hoffman","year":"1957","journal-title":"AMA Arch. Surg."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"252","article-title":"The triangle of the vertebral artery","volume":"56","author":"Tubbs","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"202","article-title":"Untersuchungen \u00fcber den Bau des sympathischen Nervensystems der S\u00e4ugetiere","volume":"37","year":"1908","journal-title":"Morphol. Jahrb."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aanat.2021.151788","article-title":"A meta-analysis on the anatomical variability of the brachial plexus: Part II\u2014Branching of the supraclavicular part","volume":"238","author":"Benes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Anat."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1001\/archsurg.1927.01130240044003","article-title":"Distribution of the sympathetic rami to the brachial plexus: Its relation to sympathectomy affecting the upper extremity","volume":"15","author":"Kuntz","year":"1927","journal-title":"Arch. Surg."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-002-4555-0","article-title":"A thoracoscopic view of the nerve of Kuntz","volume":"17","author":"Ramsaroop","year":"2003","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehw365","article-title":"The sympathetic regulation of the heart","volume":"37","author":"Esler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2019.07.026","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Nerve Block by Point-of-Care Ultrasonography for Treatment of Refractory Infarction-Induced Ventricular Fibrillation","volume":"75","author":"Margus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s10286-023-00948-8","article-title":"Autonomic control of ventricular function in health and disease: Current state of the art","volume":"33","author":"Ripplinger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Auton. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-197311000-00013","article-title":"Cardiac effects of stimulation and block of the stellate ganglion","volume":"39","author":"Rogers","year":"1973","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5603\/FM.2015.0003","article-title":"Autonomic cardiac nerves: Literature review","volume":"74","author":"Kuder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Folia Morphol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2012.03.052","article-title":"Sympathetic innervation of the anterior left ventricular wall by the right and left stellate ganglia","volume":"9","author":"Vaseghi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.18.4.416","article-title":"Functional distribution of right and left stellate innervation to the ventricles. Production of neurogenic electrocardiographic changes by unilateral alteration of sympathetic tone","volume":"18","author":"Yanowitz","year":"1966","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(89)90098-X","article-title":"A general pattern of CNS innervation of the sympathetic outflow demonstrated by transneuronal pseudorabies viral infections","volume":"491","author":"Strack","year":"1989","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5955(93)90006-M","article-title":"Stellate ganglion drives sympathetic regulation of cochlear blood flow","volume":"64","author":"Laurikainen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1972.36.6.0756","article-title":"Electrical stimulation of the stellate ganglion and the vertebral nerve","volume":"36","author":"Nagashima","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.188.3.8351337","article-title":"CT-guided injection of the stellate ganglion: Description of technique and efficacy of sympathetic blockade","volume":"188","author":"Erickson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Rathmell, J.P. (2012). Atlas of Image-Guided Intervention in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3344\/kjp.2011.24.3.141","article-title":"Estimation of Stellate Ganglion Block Injection Point Using the Cricoid Cartilage as Landmark Through X-ray Review","volume":"24","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Korean J. Pain."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1053\/trap.2001.25280","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block","volume":"5","author":"Rauck","year":"2001","journal-title":"Tech. Reg. Anesth. Pain. Manag."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-00115550-200803000-00003","article-title":"Variable osteology of the sixth cervical vertebra in relation to stellate ganglion block","volume":"33","author":"Janik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain. Med."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.4196\/kjpp.2024.28.1.93","article-title":"Store-operated calcium entry in the satellite glial cells of rat sympathetic ganglia","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Korean J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2010.04.009","article-title":"Satellite glial cells in sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia: In search of function","volume":"64","author":"Hanani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-020-0333-z","article-title":"Emerging importance of satellite glia in nervous system function and dysfunction","volume":"21","author":"Hanani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.23965","article-title":"Single-cell transcriptomic profiling of satellite glial cells in stellate ganglia reveals developmental and functional axial dynamics","volume":"69","author":"Littman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"1","article-title":"Single-cell RNA Sequencing reveals molecular heterogeneity of glia within mouse sympathetic ganglia","volume":"34","author":"Contreras","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2014.05.029","article-title":"Systemic inflammation alters satellite glial cell function and structure. A possible contribution to pain","volume":"274","author":"Blum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2009.09.038","article-title":"Augmentation in gap junction-mediated cell coupling in dorsal root ganglia following sciatic nerve neuritis in the mouse","volume":"164","author":"Ledda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-013-1735-2","article-title":"Possible role of gap junction intercellular channels and connexin 43 in satellite glial cells (SGCs) for preservation of human spiral ganglion neurons: A comparative study with clinical implications","volume":"355","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1017\/S1740925X10000037","article-title":"The structure of the perineuronal sheath of satellite glial cells (SGCs) in sensory ganglia","volume":"6","author":"Pannese","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuron Glia Biol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.1951","article-title":"Astrocytic aerobic glycolysis provides lactate to support neuronal oxidative metabolism in the hippocampus","volume":"49","author":"Dias","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biofactors"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, A., Lee, D., and Xiong, W.C. (2023). Lactate Metabolism, Signaling, and Function in Brain Development, Synaptic Plasticity, Angiogenesis, and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241713398"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1655-19.2020","article-title":"The Relationship Between Glutamate Dynamics and Activity-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity","volume":"40","author":"Barnes","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2019.03.002","article-title":"The role of astrocytic glutamate transporters GLT-1 and GLAST in neurological disorders: Potential targets for neurotherapeutics","volume":"161","author":"Pajarillo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Chu, J.M., and Wong, G.T. (2022). Cerebral Glutamate Regulation and Receptor Changes in Perioperative Neuroinflammation and Cognitive Dysfunction. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12040597"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, H., Paterson, D.J., and Herring, N. (2022). Post-Ganglionic Sympathetic Neurons can Directly Sense Raised Extracellular Na+ via SCN7a\/Nax. Front. Physiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2022.931094"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.1041140213","article-title":"Ionic behaviors and neuronal survival in developing ganglia. III. Studies with embryonic chick sympathetic neurons","volume":"114","author":"Selak","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.02-12-01836.1982","article-title":"Trans-synaptic modulation via muscarinic receptors of serotonin-containing small intensely fluorescent cells of superior cervical ganglion","volume":"2","author":"Hadjiconstantinou","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1177\/32.11.6491253","article-title":"Bombesin\/gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)- and Met5-enkephalin-Arg6-Gly7-Leu8-like immunoreactivities in small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells and nerve fibers of rat sympathetic ganglia","volume":"32","author":"Helen","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Histochem. Cytochem."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00187137","article-title":"Differential permeability of blood microvasculatures in various sympathetic ganglia of rodents","volume":"194","author":"Chau","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anat. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1159\/000146940","article-title":"Portal-like microcirculation in rat sympathetic ganglia","volume":"138","author":"Mekhail","year":"1990","journal-title":"Acta Anat."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0029(19961001)35:2<137::AID-JEMT4>3.0.CO;2-N","article-title":"Microvascular organization of sympathetic ganglia, with special reference to small intensely-fluorescent cells","volume":"35","author":"Tanaka","year":"1996","journal-title":"Microsc. Res. Tech."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.23785","article-title":"Changes in the transcriptional fingerprint of satellite glial cells following peripheral nerve injury","volume":"68","author":"Jager","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konnova, E.A., Deftu, A.F., Chung, P.C.S., Pertin, M., Kirschmann, G., Decosterd, I., and Suter, M.R. (2023). Characterisation of GFAP-Expressing Glial Cells in the Dorsal Root Ganglion after Spared Nerve Injury. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242115559"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enes, J., Haburcak, M., Sona, S., Gerard, N., Mitchell, A.C., Fu, W., and Birren, S.J. (2020). Satellite glial cells modulate cholinergic transmission between sympathetic neurons. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218643"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0940-9602(11)80016-6","article-title":"An investigation into the extrinsic blood supply and the microvasculature of the rat stellate ganglion","volume":"175","author":"Lingam","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Anat."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"219","article-title":"The arterial supply to the stellate ganglion","volume":"87","author":"Patterson","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1111\/pme.12040","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block as an early intervention in sympathetically maintained headache and orofacial pain caused by temporal arteritis","volume":"14","author":"Noma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1053\/rapm.2000.6450","article-title":"The bilateral effect of stellate ganglion block on the facial skin blood flow","volume":"25","author":"Kakuyama","year":"2000","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2017.03.005","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block: Important weapon in the anesthesiologists\u2019 armamentarium","volume":"32","author":"Raut","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cardiothor. Vasc. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2017.09.008","article-title":"Ultrasound-guided Stellate Ganglion Block Improves Gastrointestinal Function After Thoracolumbar Spinal Surgery","volume":"39","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.62347\/QEVD3665","article-title":"Effects of stellate ganglion block on inflammation and autophagy of spinal cord neurons in rats with neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14337","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block potentially ameliorates postoperative cognitive decline in aged rats by regulating the neuroendocrine response to stress","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3838","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-022-03800-z","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Block Improves Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction in aged rats by SIRT1-mediated White Matter Lesion Repair","volume":"47","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenzel, C.M., Meyer, T.M., Stoevesandt, D., Kielstein, H., and Kielstein, J.T. (2022). Evaluation of the ideal length of the Seldinger needle for internal jugular vein catheter placement. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-06287-4"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H392","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00644.2016","article-title":"Cardiac sympathetic innervation via middle cervical and stellate ganglia and antiarrhythmic mechanism of bilateral stellectomy","volume":"312","author":"Irie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-012-2704-y","article-title":"CT-guided stellate ganglion blockade vs. radiofrequency neurolysis in the management of refractory type I complex regional pain syndrome of the upper limb","volume":"23","author":"Kastler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"65","article-title":"Ultrasound-guided Stellate Ganglion Block for Upper Extremity Phantom Limb Pain-A Case Series","volume":"38","author":"Goyal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ind. J. Pain."},{"key":"ref_152","first-page":"598","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block as an analgesic rescue alternative in phantom limb syndrome following an amputation: A case report","volume":"51","author":"Mendoza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.36076\/ppj.2018.4.351","article-title":"Thermal Versus Super Voltage Pulsed Radiofrequency of Stellate Ganglion in Post-Mastectomy Neuropathic Pain Syndrome: A Prospective Randomized Trial","volume":"21","author":"Abbas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pain Physician"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1097\/00002508-200006000-00010","article-title":"Radiofrequency lesions of the stellate ganglion in chronic pain syndromes: Retrospective analysis of clinical efficacy in 86 patients","volume":"16","author":"Forouzanfar","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. J. Pain."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo, K., Qian, L., Tian, J., Liao, J., Tan, F., Kong, W., Yu, X., and Chi, X. (2023). Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion blockade\u2014Patient positioning is everything: A case report demonstrating the efficacy of a modified out-of-plane approach. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1288484"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.4103\/0970-9185.86598","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block for treatment of cerebral vasospasm in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage\u2014A preliminary study","volume":"27","author":"Jain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.5.JNS182890","article-title":"Decrease of blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery after stellate ganglion block following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A potential vasospasm treatment?","volume":"133","author":"Wendel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.3171\/2023.3.JNS222567","article-title":"Early stellate ganglion block for improvement of postoperative cerebral blood flow velocity after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial","volume":"139","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1007\/s00234-021-02689-9","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block combined with intra-arterial treatment: A \u201cone-stop shop\u201d for cerebral vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage\u2014A pilot study","volume":"63","author":"Pileggi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroradiology"},{"key":"ref_160","first-page":"18","article-title":"A Case of Intractable Hyperhidrosis in Spinal Cord Injury: Role of Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"2","author":"Sheen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Med. Res. Healthc. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-6576.2003.00076.x","article-title":"Transient locked-in syndrome resulting from stellate ganglion block in the treatment of patients with sudden hearing loss","volume":"47","author":"Tuz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dajing, J., and Mei, Z. (2025). Clinical efficacy of stellate ganglion block combined with betahistine hydrochloride in the treatment of vestibular migraine. Front. Med. Sci. Res., 7.","DOI":"10.25236\/FMSR.2025.070113"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-023-01762-w","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Block and Intraarterial Spasmolysis in Patients with Cerebral Vasospasm: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"40","author":"Wendel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurocritical Care"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1097\/00003643-199904000-00014","article-title":"Stellate ganglion block, cervical sympathetic block and cervicothoracic sympathetic block","volume":"16","author":"Okuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3959(89)90023-7","article-title":"Extent of sympathetic blockade after stellate ganglion block with bupivacaine","volume":"36","author":"Hardy","year":"1989","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmrj.2018.08.376","article-title":"Impact of Neck Position on the Probability of Common Carotid Artery Puncture During Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"PM&R"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1002\/pmrj.12238","article-title":"A Letter to the Editor: Impact of Neck Position on the Probability of Common Carotid Artery Puncture during Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"11","author":"Reddy","year":"2019","journal-title":"PM&R"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2010.06487.x","article-title":"Cardiac arrest following stellate ganglion block performed under ultrasound guidance","volume":"65","author":"Rastogi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.4097\/kjae.2002.43.2.241","article-title":"Bilateral Horner\u2019s Syndrome after a Stellate Ganglion Block","volume":"43","author":"Lim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Korean J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anitescu, M., Benzon, H., and Wallace, M. (2017). Stroke: A Complication of Stellate Ganglion Block. Challenging Cases and Complication Management in Pain Medicine, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60072-7"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.2147\/JPR.S451952","article-title":"Objective Evaluation of Stellate Ganglion Block Effects Using Ultrasound Wave Intensity Technology: A Study on Hemodynamics","volume":"17","author":"Gan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pain. Res."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-00115550-199318010-00012","article-title":"Contralateral spread of local anesthetic with stellate ganglion block","volume":"18","author":"Wallace","year":"1993","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvaa253","article-title":"Mechanism of ventricular premature beats elicited by left stellate ganglion stimulation during acute ischaemia of the anterior left ventricle","volume":"117","author":"Boukens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2019.12.022","article-title":"Stellate ganglion stimulation causes spatiotemporal changes in ventricular repolarization in pig","volume":"17","author":"Meijborg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2019.01.098","article-title":"Proarrhythmic proclivity of left-stellate ganglion stimulation in a canine model of drug-induced long-QT syndrome type 1","volume":"286","author":"Moers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2023.02.024","article-title":"Stellate ganglion instrumentation for pharmacological blockade, nerve recording, and stimulation in patients with ventricular arrhythmias: Preliminary experience","volume":"20","author":"Lador","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_177","first-page":"H1696","article-title":"Stimulation of left stellate ganglion prolongs Q-T interval in patients with palmar hyperhidrosis","volume":"273","author":"Wong","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12328","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12328","article-title":"Augmentation of cardiac sympathetic tone by percutaneous low-level stellate ganglion stimulation in humans: A feasibility study","volume":"3","author":"Ajijola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.29.5.555","article-title":"Sympathetic control of pulmonary vascular impedance in anesthetized dogs","volume":"29","author":"Pace","year":"1971","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Zhou, X., Huang, B., Wang, Z., Zhou, L., Wang, M., Yu, L., and Jiang, H. (2016). Noninvasive low-frequency electromagnetic stimulation of the left stellate ganglion reduces myocardial infarction-induced ventricular arrhythmia. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep30783"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2003.07.053","article-title":"Long-term subthreshold electrical stimulation of the left stellate ganglion and a canine model of sudden cardiac death","volume":"43","author":"Swissa","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.018028","article-title":"Continuous low-level vagus nerve stimulation reduces stellate ganglion nerve activity and paroxysmal atrial tachyarrhythmias in ambulatory canines","volume":"123","author":"Shen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2019.05.029","article-title":"Subcutaneous nerve stimulation for rate control in ambulatory dogs with persistent atrial fibrillation","volume":"16","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2020.02.006","article-title":"Subcutaneous nerve stimulation reduces sympathetic nerve activity in ambulatory dogs with myocardial infarction","volume":"17","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"euad290","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euad290","article-title":"Stellate ganglion ablation by conventional radiofrequency in patients with electrical storm","volume":"25","author":"Rao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-4637.2009.00766.x","article-title":"Preliminary study of the efficacy of radiofrequency lesions of stellate ganglion in chronic pain patients","volume":"11","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-017-2649-1","article-title":"Locus coeruleus","volume":"373","author":"Benarroch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s11936-003-0024-x","article-title":"Thoracic Outlet Syndromes","volume":"5","author":"Urschel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.5435\/JAAOS-D-13-00215","article-title":"Thoracic outlet syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Kuhn","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, N., Dierks, G., Vervaeke, H.E., Jumonville, A., Kaye, A.D., Myrcik, D., Paladini, A., Varrassi, G., Viswanath, O., and Urits, I. (2021). Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10050962"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jse.2022.06.026","article-title":"Thoracic outlet syndrome: A review","volume":"31","author":"Panther","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Shoulder Elb. Surg."},{"key":"ref_192","first-page":"214","article-title":"The transaxillary approach for treatment of thoracic outlet syndromes","volume":"8","author":"Urschel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Semin. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.44.5.637","article-title":"Effects of unilateral stellectomy upon cardiac performance during exercise in dogs","volume":"44","author":"Schwartz","year":"1979","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.40.6.536","article-title":"Effect of stellectomy and vagotomy on ventricular refractoriness in dogs","volume":"40","author":"Schwartz","year":"1977","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.74.5.584","article-title":"Left stellectomy in the long QT syndrome","volume":"74","author":"Coyer","year":"1978","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-5273(89)90278-7","article-title":"Electrophysiologic actions and antifibrillatory efficacy of subacute left stellectomy in a conscious, post-infarction canine model of ischemic ventricular fibrillation","volume":"22","author":"Nelson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9149(76)90420-3","article-title":"Effects of unilateral cardiac sympathetic denervation on the ventricular fibrillation threshold","volume":"37","author":"Schwartz","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.62.6.1256","article-title":"Left stellectomy in the prevention of ventricular fibrillation caused by acute myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs with anterior myocardial infarction","volume":"62","author":"Schwartz","year":"1980","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2017.09.039","article-title":"Sympathetic nerve blocks promote anti-inflammatory response by activating the JAK2-STAT3-mediated signaling cascade in rat myocarditis models: A novel mechanism with clinical implications","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9149(82)90043-1","article-title":"Left stellectomy and denervation supersensitivity in conscious dogs","volume":"49","author":"Schwartz","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.41.1.51","article-title":"Tonic influence of the sympathetic nervous system on myocardial reactive hyperemia and on coronary blood flow distribution in dogs","volume":"41","author":"Schwartz","year":"1977","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2024.132890","article-title":"Perioperative and long-term outcomes of bilateral cardiac sympathetic denervation via video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in patients with refractory ventricular arrhythmias","volume":"421","author":"Damiani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.4149\/BLL_2022_091","article-title":"Bilateral thoracoscopic cardiac sympathetic denervation in patients with refractory ventricular tachyarrhythmias non-responsive to other treatment","volume":"123","author":"Juhos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bratisl. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-017-1577-0","article-title":"Left cardiac sympathetic denervation: Case series and technical report","volume":"186","author":"McNamara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ir. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2018.07.037","article-title":"Minimally invasive transtracheal cardiac plexus block for sympathetic neuromodulation","volume":"16","author":"Assis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI102421","article-title":"The effect of bilateral stellectomy upon the cerebral circulation of man","volume":"30","author":"Shenkin","year":"1951","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e94715","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.94715","article-title":"Inflammation, oxidative stress, and glial cell activation characterize stellate ganglia from humans with electrical storm","volume":"2","author":"Ajijola","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1002\/mdc3.13691","article-title":"Stellate Ganglion Blockade for Corticobasal Syndrome Pain: A Case Report and Potential New Discovery","volume":"10","author":"Hobbs","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2024.12.034","article-title":"Fatal familial insomnia: A new case description with response to thoracic sympathetic nerve thermocoagulation and stellate ganglion block","volume":"127","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sleep Med."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/15\/22\/2911\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T10:14:03Z","timestamp":1763460843000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/15\/22\/2911"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"references-count":209,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics15222911"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics15222911","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]}}}