{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T07:39:48Z","timestamp":1790840388888,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765756800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a key indicator of renal function. Traditional methods for GFR measurement have limitations including invasiveness, low spatial resolution, and lengthy protocols. Positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers have emerged as promising tools for non-invasive, accurate, and dynamic renal function assessment. Objectives: This systematic literature review evaluates the clinical utility, and current evidence surrounding PET radiotracers used for GFR measurement in humans, emphasizing advances over conventional renal imaging modalities. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, from database inception to November 2024. The search identified studies evaluating PET-based measurement of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal perfusion. Inclusion criteria encompassed human studies using PET radiotracers (e.g., 68Ga, 18F) with comparisons to reference standards (estimated GFR or serum creatinine). Two authors independently screened titles\/abstracts, extracted data, and assessed bias using Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies tool (QUADAS-2). Exclusions included animal studies, reviews, and non-English articles. Results: Eleven studies met inclusion criteria, with 68Ga-EDTA showing the highest validation against reference standards such as 51Cr-EDTA plasma clearance, demonstrating strong correlation. PET imaging offered superior spatial\u2013temporal resolution, enabling accurate split renal function assessment and quantitative analysis of both filtration and perfusion. 68Ga-somatostatin analogues exhibited moderate correlations between renal SUV and estimated GFR, with post-PRRT uptake changes indicating early nephrotoxicity. Among novel tracers, 68Ga-FAPI showed a strong inverse SUV\u2013GFR relationship, reflecting renal fibrosis and suggesting potential as a chronic kidney disease (CKD) biomarker but requires further clinical validation. Limitations across studies include small sample sizes, retrospective designs, and variability in reference standards. Conclusions: PET radiotracers, particularly 68Ga-EDTA, represent a significant advancement for non-invasive, quantitative GFR measurement with improved precision and renal anatomical detail compared to traditional methods. Future prospective, large-scale human studies with standardized protocols are needed to establish these PET tracers as routine clinical tools in nephrology. Integration of hybrid PET\/MRI and novel tracer development may further enhance renal diagnostic capabilities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15243209","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T15:52:59Z","timestamp":1765813979000},"page":"3209","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Advancements in Renal Imaging: A Comprehensive Systematic Review of PET Probes for Enhanced GFR and Renal Perfusion Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9863-9053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marwah","family":"Abdulrahman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2009-5110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Saad","family":"Abdlkadir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9065-3715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serin","family":"Moghrabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4227-8658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salem","family":"Alyazjeen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6921-7748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Soud","family":"Al-Qasem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deya\u2019 Aldeen Sulaiman","family":"Sweedat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saad","family":"Ruzzeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dragi","family":"Stanimirovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Thyroid Gland Disease, University Clinical Centre of the Republic of Srpska, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5905-6015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael C.","family":"Kreissl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongcheng","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2806-0625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike","family":"Sathekge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Pretoria & Steve Biko Academic Hospital, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"},{"name":"Nuclear Medicine Research Infrastructure (NuMeRI), Steve Biko Academic Hospital, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0978-4716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akram","family":"Al-Ibraheem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), Amman 11941, Jordan"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6105","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.58682","article-title":"Current and Future Perspectives on Functional Molecular Imaging in Nephro-Urology: Theranostics on the Horizon","volume":"11","author":"Toyama","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e560","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000003088","article-title":"Renal Blood Flow, Glomerular Filtration Rate, and Renal Oxygenation in Early Clinical Septic Shock","volume":"46","author":"Krumbholz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. 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