{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T10:29:55Z","timestamp":1787653795960,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]],"date-time":"2026-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771113600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2R15HL143545-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2R15HL143545-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) is an infectious disease characterized by the invasion of Mycobacterium tuberculosis beyond the lungs. Diagnosis is frequently delayed due to nonspecific clinical presentations that vary by organ system, making diagnostic imaging essential for disease detection, characterization, and treatment monitoring. The objective of this review is to examine and summarize imaging-based approaches for the diagnostic evaluation of EPTB across multiple body systems, including the central nervous system, spine, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, abdominal and hepatic organs, genitourinary tract, cutaneous and soft tissue, and other rare sites. While computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, and ultrasound are widely used in the evaluation of EPTB, their ability to provide a definitive diagnosis is often limited by nonspecific radiologic findings. Emerging techniques, including perfusion-weighted MRI, contrast-enhanced ultrasound, and machine learning, have been discussed, as they improve lesion characterization and EPTB differentiation. By organizing imaging findings according to affected organ systems, this review highlights both shared diagnostic challenges and site-specific patterns that can inform clinical suspicion. Together, these developments underscore the value of a multimodal, organ-specific imaging approach integrated with the clinical context to improve the recognition and management of EPTB.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics16040586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T14:09:54Z","timestamp":1771250994000},"page":"586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Diagnostic Imaging of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis Across Organ Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1301-1400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madeleine T.","family":"Dang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7273-1158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kara","family":"Lukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8243-2493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel H.","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1192-0588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timothy J.","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2586-1160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishwanath","family":"Venketaraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1080\/17476348.2021.1927718","article-title":"Extrapulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"15","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Global Tuberculosis Report 2025, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinha, S., Titiyal, R., Mohapatra, P.R., Palvai, R.K., Kar, I., Mishra, B., Ajayababu, A., Sinha, A., Bhuniya, S., and Pandey, S. (2025). Evaluating the Gaps in the Diagnosis and Treatment in Extra-Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients Under National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP) Guidelines: A Multicentric Cohort Study. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed10080206"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.20731","article-title":"Clinical misconceptions and diagnostic delays in extrapulmonary tuberculosis: An evaluation on 89 cases","volume":"19","author":"Gurcuoglu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dian, S., Hermawan, R., van Laarhoven, A., Immaculata, S., Achmad, T.H., Ruslami, R., Anwary, F., Soetikno, R.D., Ganiem, A.R., and van Crevel, R. (2020). Brain MRI findings in relation to clinical characteristics and outcome of tuberculous meningitis. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241974"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2025.02.051","article-title":"Alterations of white matter integrity in patients with intracranial tuberculosis: A tract-based spatial statistics study","volume":"572","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1067\/j.cpradiol.2020.10.005","article-title":"Multimodality Imaging of Genitourinary Tuberculosis","volume":"50","author":"Radwan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Diagn. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210713","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20210713","article-title":"Imaging findings of prostate tuberculosis by transrectal contrast-enhanced ultrasound and comparison with 2D ultrasound and pathology","volume":"95","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X.L., Liu, X.Y., Wen, L., Li, R., Lv, S.X., and Wang, G.X. (2025). Clinical and CT characteristics of abdominal tuberculous lymphadenopathy: A comparative analysis of hematogenous and non-hematogenous dissemination. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-11101-3"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13244-022-01172-0","article-title":"Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: An old but resurgent problem","volume":"13","author":"Baykan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Insights Imaging"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"e81256","article-title":"Tuberculosis Beyond the Lungs: A Pictorial Review of Key Diagnostic Imaging Insights","volume":"17","author":"Garcia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2019190109","article-title":"Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology and Imaging Findings","volume":"39","author":"Renjifo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moller, K., Lowe, A., Jenssen, C., Chaubal, N., Gottschall, H., Misselwitz, B., Kurapati, M.R., Puritipati, A.R., Dong, Y., and Faiss, S. (2024). Comments and Illustrations of Ultrasound Findings in Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis Manifestations. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14070706"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16675","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-21153-z","article-title":"Extrapulmonary tuberculosis mortality according to clinical and point of care ultrasound features in Mozambique","volume":"12","author":"Nacarapa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac871","article-title":"Ultrasononography in Managing Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: A Randomized, Controlled, Parallel, Superiority, Open-Label Trial","volume":"76","author":"Ndege","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6657","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-50989-4","article-title":"Dynamic PET reveals compartmentalized brain and lung tissue antibiotic exposures of tuberculosis drugs","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3118","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-020-04888-7","article-title":"Sequential (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography ((18)F-FDG PET) scan findings in patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis during the course of treatment-a prospective observational study","volume":"47","author":"Bomanji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901959","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01959-2019","article-title":"PET\/CT features of extrapulmonary tuberculosis at first clinical presentation: A cross-sectional observational (18)F-FDG imaging study across six countries","volume":"55","author":"Bomanji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"005475","article-title":"(18)FDG PET\/CT is Sensitive but not Specific for Malignancy: Two Cases of Disseminated Tuberculosis Mimicking Metastatic Cancer on Imaging and Clinical Presentation","volume":"12","author":"Collin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Case Rep. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"101723","article-title":"A multicenter multi-modal AI framework integrating radiomics and deep learning for differentiating Spinal Tuberculosis from pyogenic spondylitis using chest X-rays","volume":"18","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2024.2425712","article-title":"Role of artificial intelligence in early diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases","volume":"57","author":"Srivastava","year":"2025","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mbulayi, O., Djungu, S.J., Aketi, L., Koulali, M.A., Azzaoui, H., Koulali, R., El Mzibri, M., Chaoui, I., and Tayalati, Y. (2025). Tuberculosis diagnosis using artificial intelligence: Current trends and future prospects. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1569615"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"e87077","article-title":"Diverse Manifestations of Central Nervous System Tuberculosis: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Presentations and Laboratory Investigations in a Cohort Study","volume":"17","author":"Patel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smitesh, G.G., Mannam, P., Kumar, V., George, T., Murugabharathy, K., Prakash, T.V., Yadav, B., and Sudarsanam, T.D. (2022). Absence of posterior pituitary bright spot in adults with CNS tuberculosis: A case-control study. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0275460"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shan, Q.L., Zhang, L., Fu, X.W., Qi, M., Wei, J.L., Gan, W., Li, X., and Shen, L.J. (2025). Clinical and radiological characteristics of parenchymal and meningeal spinal tuberculosis. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-10883-w"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0102","article-title":"18FDG-Positron Emission Tomography in patients with Tuberculous Meningitis: A Prospective Evaluation","volume":"105","author":"Nigam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Haouimi, A. (2026, February 11). Tuberculous Meningitis with Subarachnoid Spinal Involvement. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/72617."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S224238","article-title":"Differentiation of Intraspinal Tuberculosis and Metastatic Cancer Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5615","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-022-06221-6","article-title":"Tuberculous myelitis: A prospective follow-up study","volume":"43","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"e62998","article-title":"The Role of Diffusion Tensor Imaging in CNS Tuberculosis","volume":"16","author":"Saurya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17581","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-68308-8","article-title":"Computer-aided prognosis of tuberculous meningitis combining imaging and non-imaging data","volume":"14","author":"Canas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8659","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-022-08911-3","article-title":"MRI-based radiomics signature for identification of invisible basal cisterns changes in tuberculous meningitis: A preliminary multicenter study","volume":"32","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmy.ijmy_14_24","article-title":"Spinal Tuberculosis: An Exhaustive Diagnosis","volume":"13","author":"Acharya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mycobacteriol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"100245","article-title":"Unmasking the great imitators-noninfectious conditions masquerading as spinal tuberculosis in a developing country: A single-center case series analysis","volume":"16","author":"Garg","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Am. Spine Soc. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mjafi.2016.10.011","article-title":"Tubercular spondylitis: A review of MRI findings in 80 cases","volume":"74","author":"Maurya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. J. Armed Forces India"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000004848","article-title":"Development of a Diagnostic Model for Differentiating Tuberculous Spondylitis and Pyogenic Spondylitis With MRI: A Multicenter Retrospective Observational Study","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcot.2021.101742","article-title":"Imaging update in spinal tuberculosis","volume":"25","author":"Kubihal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Orthop. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Qureshi, P.A.A.A. (2026, February 01). Tuberculous Spondylitis. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/73438."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Wang, Y., and Jia, W. (2022). Early diagnosis of spinal tuberculosis by magnetic resonance: Perfusion weighted imaging in a rabbit model. BMC Med. Imaging, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12880-022-00870-x"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e019435","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.019435","article-title":"Tuberculosis and the Heart","volume":"10","author":"Saldarriaga","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3608","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.543066","article-title":"Tuberculous Pericarditis","volume":"112","author":"Mayosi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.4070\/kcj.2019.0317","article-title":"The Clinical Course of Tuberculous Pericarditis in Immunocompetent Hosts Based on Serial Echocardiography","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, X., Zhu, F., and You, Q. (2025). The clinical application value and the imaging characteristic of (18)F-FDG PET\/CT in tuberculous pericarditis. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-025-04828-z"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Hartung, M.P. (2026, February 02). Constrictive Pericarditis. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/72955."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268824000153","article-title":"Application of ultrasound multimodal imaging in the prediction of cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis rupture","volume":"152","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"941","article-title":"Analysis of misdiagnosis and 18F-FDG PET\/CT findings of lymph node tuberculosis","volume":"30","author":"Liao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Xray Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, T., Zhang, L., Xu, J., Meng, J., Yu, X., and Zhang, Y. (2023). The value of multimodal ultrasonography in evaluating therapeutic response of cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis to anti-tuberculosis drugs. Front. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1177045"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2021.12.002","article-title":"The application of ultrasound shear wave elastography in the prediction of paradoxical upgrading reaction in tuberculous lymphadenitis. a pilot study","volume":"121","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Formos. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.3233\/CH-211355","article-title":"The diagnostic value of contrast-enhanced ultrasound for cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis","volume":"81","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Patel, M.S. (2026, February 03). Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/tuberculous-cervical-lymphadenitis-3?lang=us."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6627","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000002850","article-title":"Development and validation of a deep learning ultrasound radiomics model for predicting drug resistance in lymph node tuberculosis a multicenter study","volume":"111","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtb.2025.02.008","article-title":"Diagnostic evaluation and management of abdominal tuberculosis","volume":"72","author":"Sampath","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indian J. Tuberc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4156","DOI":"10.21037\/qims-24-2265","article-title":"Computed tomography imaging characteristics of paradoxical reactions in perihepatic and hepatic tuberculosis","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Quant. Imaging Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-021-10257-9","article-title":"Hepatic tuberculosis masquerading as malignancy","volume":"16","author":"Kale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022063","DOI":"10.4084\/MJHID.2022.063","article-title":"Clinical Manifestation, Imaging Features and Treatment Follow-up of 29 Cases with Hepatic Tuberculosis","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Hematol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-023-04103-9","article-title":"CT texture analysis for differentiating between peritoneal carcinomatosis and peritoneal tuberculosis: A cross-sectional study","volume":"49","author":"Awais","year":"2024","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"CD012777","article-title":"Abdominal ultrasound for diagnosing abdominal tuberculosis or disseminated tuberculosis with abdominal involvement in HIV-positive individuals","volume":"9","author":"Griesel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1246","article-title":"Dual-Modality Imaging Approach for Abdominal Tuberculosis: A Comparative Evaluation of Ultrasonography and CT Findings","volume":"14","author":"Vaidya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Sci. Biotechnol. Pharma Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5574","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-021-03286-3","article-title":"Characterizing omental PET\/CT findings for differentiating tuberculous peritonitis from peritoneal carcinomatosis","volume":"46","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1097\/RCT.0000000000000446","article-title":"CT Differentiation of Female Peritoneal Tuberculosis and Peritoneal Carcinomatosis From Normal-Sized Ovarian Cancer","volume":"41","author":"Shim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ibrahim, D. (2026, February 02). Abdominal Peritoneal Tuberculosis (TB). Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/216518.","DOI":"10.53347\/rID-216518"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-022-03749-1","article-title":"Differentiating peritoneal tuberculosis and peritoneal carcinomatosis based on a machine learning model with CT: A multicentre study","volume":"48","author":"Pang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Roddy, K.T., Tobin, E.H., Leslie, S.W., and Rathish, B. (2024). Genitourinary Tuberculosis. StatPearls Internet, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"207","article-title":"Urogenital tuberculosis: Update and review of 8961 cases from the world literature","volume":"10","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, X.W., Bi, Y., Qi, M., Liu, J.L., Wei, J.L., Gan, W., He, J.T., and Li, X. (2025). Computed tomography imaging analysis of hematogenous disseminated pulmonary tuberculosis cases combined with prostate tuberculosis. BMC Med. Imaging, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12880-025-01753-7"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.2147\/JMDH.S401660","article-title":"The Imaging Features and Diagnostic Value of Computerised Tomography in Seminal Duct Tuberculosis","volume":"16","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Multidiscip. Healthc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.21037\/qims-23-775","article-title":"Crucial computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging findings of fallopian tubal tuberculosis for diagnosis: A retrospective study of 26 cases","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Quant. Imaging Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtb.2021.03.001","article-title":"Computed tomographic findings in female genital tuberculosis tubo-ovarian masses","volume":"69","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Tuberc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-020-02811-0","article-title":"Male genital tract tuberculosis: A comprehensive review of imaging findings and differential diagnosis","volume":"46","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtb.2021.08.031","article-title":"Role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in evaluation of tuberculous tubo ovarian mass","volume":"69","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Tuberc."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, L.V. (2026, February 02). Genitourinary Tuberculosis. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/206329.","DOI":"10.53347\/rID-206329"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Ni, T., Tang, W., and Yang, G. (2023). The Role of Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in the Differential Diagnosis of Tuberous Vas Deferens Tuberculosis and Metastatic Inguinal Lymph Nodes. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13101762"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jctube.2023.100370","article-title":"Scrofuloderma and granuloma annulare-like lesions: Challenges of diagnosing cutaneous tuberculosis in developed countries","volume":"31","author":"Banvolgyi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Tuberc. Other Mycobact. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2021.12.063","article-title":"Cutaneous tuberculosis. Part I: Pathogenesis, classification, and clinical features","volume":"89","author":"Kaul","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2021.12.064","article-title":"Cutaneous tuberculosis. Part II: Complications, diagnostic workup, histopathologic features, and treatment","volume":"89","author":"Kaul","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Wu, R., Liu, J., Dai, J., Liu, D., Liu, Y., Liang, Y., and Chen, W. (2025). Unique pathological features and drug resistance patterns in cutaneous tuberculosis. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1574051"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2433","DOI":"10.2147\/CCID.S422546","article-title":"A Chronic Multiple Site of Scrofuloderma: Is It Reactivation or Treatment Failure of Tuberculosis?","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"e62565","article-title":"A Case Report on Scrofuloderma: A Cutaneous Manifestation of Tuberculosis","volume":"16","author":"Meghe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Gaillard, F. (2026, February 03). Tuberculous Cervical Lymphadenitis. Available online: https:\/\/radiopaedia.org\/cases\/9766."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s13760-025-02730-1","article-title":"A unique case of cutaneous tuberculosis of the scalp with extensive intracranial invasion from sub Saharan Africa","volume":"125","author":"Kerstens","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Belg."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1159\/000525464","article-title":"Tuberculous Dactylitis in a Case of Multiple Scrofuloderma","volume":"14","author":"Menaldi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Rep. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1097\/RLU.0000000000005805","article-title":"Cutaneous Tuberculosis (CTB) Identified on 18F-FDG PET\/CT","volume":"50","author":"Ranes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e79","DOI":"10.5114\/pjr.2022.113475","article-title":"Unusual manifestations of extra-pulmonary tuberculosis: A pictorial essay","volume":"87","author":"Elango","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pol. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Z., Zhang, S., Liao, R., and Wang, Z. (2025). CT manifestations of primary esophageal tuberculosis. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-10865-y"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radcr.2021.05.049","article-title":"Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: A case report involving the spine and soft tissues","volume":"16","author":"Miller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Radiol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1186\/s12982-025-00593-8","article-title":"Diagnostic innovations for tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"22","author":"Scott","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.20.0788","article-title":"Risk factors for the delayed diagnosis of extrapulmonary TB","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/16\/4\/586\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T05:16:46Z","timestamp":1771305406000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/16\/4\/586"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics16040586"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics16040586","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]]}}}