{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T10:10:16Z","timestamp":1779358216132,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), comprising ~90% of oral malignancies, remains a major global health burden with rising incidence despite declining tobacco use. While tobacco and alcohol are classic dominant risk factors, a distinct subgroup of nonsmoking, nondrinking (NSND) patients is increasingly recognized, accounting for 15\u201335% of OSCC cases in many cohorts, particularly in developed countries. This emerging epidemic shows striking demographic patterns: strong female predominance (often 65\u201377% of cases), bimodal age distribution with peaks in young adults (&lt;45 years) and elderly individuals (&gt;70 years), and overrepresentation among non-Hispanic White and certain Asian populations. Unlike traditional habit-related OSCC, which favors the floor of the mouth in older males, NSND tumors predominantly arise on the lateral tongue, gingiva, and buccal mucosa. Etiopathogenesis extends far beyond conventional carcinogens and involves multifactorial mechanisms, including chronic mechanical irritation from dental factors, oral microbiome dysbiosis enriched with periodontal pathogens (e.g., Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis), limited roles for viruses (minimal HPV contribution, possible EBV or \u201chit-and-run\u201d HSV effects), genetic susceptibilities (e.g., Fanconi anemia and CDKN2A mutations), epigenetic changes, hormonal influences contributing to female bias, metabolic conditions (diabetes and hyperlipidemia), poor oral hygiene, and chronic inflammation. NSND OSCC frequently exhibits a distinct immunological profile with higher tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and PD-L1 expression, potentially favoring immunotherapy, though prognosis remains heterogeneous\u2014better in some cohorts due to fewer comorbidities, yet worse in young patients with higher recurrence and second primary tumor risks. Delayed diagnosis is common due to low suspicion in \u201clow-risk\u201d individuals. This review underscores NSND OSCC as a unique entity requiring expanded risk assessment, heightened clinical vigilance for persistent oral lesions regardless of habit history, and targeted research into novel prevention and therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics16101563","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T09:29:58Z","timestamp":1779355798000},"page":"1563","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prevalence and Etiopathogenic Profile of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Nonsmokers and Nondrinkers: Expanding Risk Determinants Beyond Tobacco Exposure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4858-6705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Effimia","family":"Stergiadou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral Medicine and Pathology, School of Dentistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0867-9639","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandros","family":"Louizakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2508-0396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tatsis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9232-6766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asterios","family":"Antoniou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Poulopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Oral Surgery, Implantology and Roentgenology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6611-7506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Poulopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral Medicine and Pathology, School of Dentistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-020-00224-3","article-title":"Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma","volume":"6","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. 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