{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T09:25:34Z","timestamp":1783416334293,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Gastrointestinal bleeding is a critical finding in wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE), but manual examination of thousands of image frames is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and susceptible to missed lesions. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a comprehensive deep-learning framework for automated bleeding detection, localization, and quantitative assessment in WCE images. Methods: The proposed framework integrates three complementary deep-learning models: (i) a custom two-dimensional convolutional neural network (2D-CNN) for frame-level bleeding classification, (ii) a three-dimensional convolutional neural network (3D-CNN) for sequence-level analysis by exploiting temporal information from consecutive frames, and (iii) a U-Net architecture for pixel-level segmentation and bleeding-area quantification. The models were trained and evaluated using expert-annotated WCE datasets with pixel-level ground-truth masks. Results: The proposed 2D-CNN and 3D-CNN achieved excellent classification performance, with areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUCs) of 0.9986 and 0.9971, respectively. The U-Net model achieved a Dice similarity coefficient of 0.93, an intersection-over-union (IoU) of 0.8677, and an overall segmentation accuracy of 97.25%. The integrated framework outperformed previously reported methods, demonstrating robust performance for bleeding detection, localization, and quantitative assessment. Conclusions: The proposed end-to-end deep-learning framework enables accurate automated bleeding detection, localization, and severity quantification in WCE images. By reducing the burden of manual image review, improving diagnostic consistency, and providing objective bleeding assessment, the framework has strong potential to support clinical decision-making and enhance gastrointestinal diagnostic workflows.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics16132121","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T08:04:49Z","timestamp":1783411489000},"page":"2121","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An End-to-End Deep Learning System for Gastrointestinal Bleeding Detection and Quantification in Wireless Capsule Endoscopy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4335-256X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mujeeb Rahman","family":"Kanhira Kadavath","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering & Information Technology (CEIT), Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2179-9178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aman","family":"Kitaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering & Information Technology (CEIT), Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nour El Houda","family":"Benyahia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering & Information Technology (CEIT), Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shatha","family":"Hussein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering & Information Technology (CEIT), Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.12968\/bjha.2021.15.3.132","article-title":"The gastrointestinal system","volume":"15","author":"Peate","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Healthc. Assist."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, L.R. (2006). Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012088394-3\/50015-5"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2005.08.002","article-title":"Gastrointestinal bleeding","volume":"34","author":"Rockey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. 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