{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,16]],"date-time":"2026-08-16T05:25:23Z","timestamp":1786857923698,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014786","name":"Northern Border University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NBU-FFR-2026-2429-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NBU-FFR-2026-2429-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014786","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["NBU-FFR-2026-2429-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NBU-FFR-2026-2429-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03j9tzj20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Class imbalance is one of the major challenges in automated skin lesion classification since the number of categories of malignant and clinically significant skin lesions is normally less than the benign ones. However, due to this imbalance, deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) tend to overlook minority classes and fail to recognize them with an acceptable accuracy, which leads to a decrease in diagnostic reliability. A wide range of imbalance mitigation techniques has been suggested, but their effectiveness is found to differ significantly depending on CNN architecture, and detailed comparative studies of these techniques for a consistent experimental setup are still limited. Methods: This study proposes a comprehensive benchmarking framework that tests sixteen class imbalance mitigation methods by applying them to six pretrained CNN architectures\u2014EfficientNet-B0, EfficientNet-B3, ResNet50, DenseNet121, InceptionV3 and MobileNetV2\u2014on the official ISIC 2019 skin lesion dataset. The tested techniques are conventional resampling techniques, synthetic sample generation techniques, algorithm-level learning techniques, data augmentation techniques, and hybrid techniques. The dataset was partition into a separate training set and testing set, and stratified cross-validation was only conducted on the training set to ensure the study was fair and reproducible. Both models have been optimized with the same optimizer, learning rate, batch size, epochs and preprocessing pipeline. The performance of the models was evaluated by computing the accuracy, precision, recall and F1-score. Results: The experimental results show that the effect of class imbalance mitigation is very specific to the underlying CNN architecture. The traditional undersampling and oversampling methods yielded only moderate improvements, while feature space and hybrid methods yielded more consistent results. When coupled with EfficientNet-B3, Balanced MixUp improved the overall performance of the model by achieving an accuracy of 92.39%, an increase in precision of 93.3%, a recall of 91.36%, and an F1-score of 92.33%. However, some architectures such as ResNet50 performed better with iterative learning techniques, such as Cumulative Learning and Yielding Multi-Fold Training, which suggests that there is a diversity in how different network architectures react to imbalance mitigation methods. Conclusions: This paper highlights the importance of selecting appropriate technique\u2013architecture combinations for addressing long-tailed data distributions in medical imaging. The proposed benchmarking framework provides valuable insights for developing robust and reliable deep learning systems for skin lesion classification and other medical imaging tasks affected by severe class imbalance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics16162571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T13:12:56Z","timestamp":1786713176000},"page":"2571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Benchmarking Class Imbalance Mitigation Strategies Across Deep CNN Architectures for Skin Cancer Classification"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0021-556X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irshad","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, Islamia College Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Khubaib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, Islamia College Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2205-0220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saleh M.","family":"Altowaijri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Northern Border University, Rafha 91911, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Chawla, N.V., Japkowicz, N., and Kolcz, A. 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