{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T12:15:58Z","timestamp":1789042558170,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are widely used point-of-care diagnostic devices due to their low cost, portability, and ease of use. However, most LFAs provide only qualitative results, limiting their utility for applications requiring continuous biomarker monitoring. This study introduces DeepBand, a deep learning-enabled multi-stage framework designed to automate the continuous quantification of analyte concentrations from unstandardized smartphone-captured lateral flow assay (LFA) images. Methods: A publicly available dataset containing 672 COVID-19 LFA images corresponding to four analyte concentrations (0.0, 1.8, 3.7, and 7.4 ng) was analyzed. A multi-stage pipeline was developed consisting of: (1) YOLOv11-based object detection to isolate the LFA cartridge from background artifacts, (2) a custom computer vision algorithm to identify and crop the test and control bands, and (3) a custom convolutional neural network (CNN) trained as a supervised regression model to predict continuous analyte concentrations. Data augmentation, hyperparameter optimization, and 5-fold cross-validation were used to improve model robustness. Results: The YOLOv11 model achieved approximately 99% mAP50 and 93.96% mAP95 for cartridge detection. Initial CNN models exhibited systematic underprediction of higher concentrations due to target imbalance; replacing mean squared error with Huber loss substantially improved performance, resulting in a final 20% held-out test set RMSE of 0.0292 ng. Analysis of HSV image channels demonstrated that the saturation-channel test-to-control intensity ratio was strongly correlated with analyte concentration (r = 0.94), consistent with the Beer\u2013Lambert law governing LFA signal formation. Channel ablation studies confirmed the saturation channel as the most informative feature, while saliency mapping showed that the model primarily focused on biologically relevant test and control line regions. Conclusions: The proposed deep learning-enabled workflow, DeepBand, successfully integrates object detection, image processing, and CNN-based regression to provide automated quantitative interpretation of LFA results from smartphone images. Furthermore, the observed agreement between model behavior and Beer\u2013Lambert theory suggests that the network learns biologically meaningful signal characteristics, supporting its potential for quantitative point-of-care diagnostics and longitudinal disease monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics16182927","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T11:38:39Z","timestamp":1789040319000},"page":"2927","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["DeepBand: A Deep Learning-Enabled Multi-Stage Pipeline for Continuous Automated Quantification of Lateral Flow Assays"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Manan","family":"Vij","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 622 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3734-4590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex J.","family":"Rai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 622 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rashiku, M., Manoharan, K., Gangopadhyay, S., and Bhattacharya, S. 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