{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T21:15:10Z","timestamp":1784754910630,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]],"date-time":"2019-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1575936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ventricular arrhythmia (VA) in autoimmune rheumatic diseases (ARD) is an expression of autoimmune inflammatory cardiomyopathy (AIC), caused by structural, electrical, or inflammatory heart disease, and has a serious impact on a patient\u2019s outcome. Myocardial scar of ischemic or nonischemic origin through a re-entry mechanism facilitates the development of VA. Additionally, autoimmune myocardial inflammation, either isolated or as a part of the generalized inflammatory process, also facilitates the development of VA through arrhythmogenic autoantibodies and inflammatory channelopathies. The clinical presentation of AIC varies from oligo-asymptomatic presentation to severe VA and sudden cardiac death (SCD). Both positron emission tomography (PET) and cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) can diagnose AIC early and be useful tools for the assessment of therapies during follow-ups. The AIC treatment should be focused on the following: (1) early initiation of cardiac medication, including ACE-inhibitors, b-blockers, and aldosterone antagonists; (2) early initiation of antirheumatic medication, depending on the underlying disease; and (3) potentially implantable cardioverter\u2013defibrillator (ICD) and\/or ablation therapy in patients who are at high risk for SCD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics9040217","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]],"date-time":"2019-12-10T10:52:41Z","timestamp":1575975161000},"page":"217","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Arrhythmogenic Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy in Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases: A Challenge for Cardio-Rheumatology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Sophie I.","family":"Mavrogeni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Onassis Cardiac surgery Center, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Markousis-Mavrogenis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Onassis Cardiac surgery Center, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Constantina","family":"Aggeli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiac Clinic, Hippokration University Hospital, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tousoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiac Clinic, Hippokration University Hospital, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George D.","family":"Kitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis Research UK Epidemiology Unit, Manchester University, Manchester M13 9PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Genovefa","family":"Kolovou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Onassis Cardiac surgery Center, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Efstathios K.","family":"Iliodromitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Second Cardiac Clinic, Attikon University Hospital, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petros P.","family":"Sfikakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Propeudeutic and Internal medicine, Laikon Hospital, Athens University Medical School, 17674 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e210","article-title":"2017 AHA\/ACC\/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: Executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society","volume":"138","author":"Stevenson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joa.2015.09.010","article-title":"Molecular autopsy in victims of inherited arrhythmias","volume":"32","author":"Semsarian","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Arrhythm."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iv39","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kel315","article-title":"Cardiac arrhythmias and conduction disturbances in autoimmune rheumatic diseases","volume":"45","author":"Maisch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2018.10.067","article-title":"Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging pattern in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases and ventricular tachycardia with preserved ejection fraction","volume":"284","author":"Mavrogeni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1615","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-018-4110-5","article-title":"Prospects of using cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the identification of arrhythmogenic substrate in autoimmune rheumatic diseases","volume":"38","author":"Mavrogeni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.77.3.589","article-title":"Reentry as a cause of ventricular tachycardia in patients with chronic ischemic heart disease: Electrophysiologic and anatomic correlation","volume":"77","author":"Janse","year":"1988","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/0735-1097(95)00612-5","article-title":"Fractionated electrograms in dilated cardiomyopathy: Origin and relation to abnormal conduction","volume":"27","author":"Janse","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.87.5.1649","article-title":"Circus movement atrial flutter in the canine sterile pericarditis model: Cryothermal termination from the epicardial site of the slow zone of the reentrant circuit","volume":"87","author":"Isber","year":"1993","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1231","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00607.2006","article-title":"Effects of sterile pericarditis on connexins 40 and 43 in the atria: Correlation with abnormal conduction and atrial arrhythmias","volume":"293","author":"Ryu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euv019","article-title":"Insights into new-onset atrial fibrillation following open heart surgery and implications for type II atrial flutter","volume":"17","author":"Sadrpour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2005.11.002","article-title":"Connective tissue diseases and cardiac rhythm disorders: An overview","volume":"5","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-007-0686-8","article-title":"Autoantibody-mediated cardiac arrhythmias: Mechanisms and clinical implications","volume":"103","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2008","journal-title":"Basic Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.04.041","article-title":"Provocation of an autoimmune response to cardiac voltage-gated sodiumchannel NaV1.5 induces cardiac conduction defects in rats","volume":"62","author":"Korkmaz","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2014.07.040","article-title":"Induced KCNQ1 autoimmunity accelerates cardiac repolarization in rabbits: Potential significance in arrhythmogenesis and antiarrhythmic therapy","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6175","DOI":"10.1113\/JP272151","article-title":"Induction of autoimmune response to the extracellular loop of the HERG channel pore induces QTc prolongation in guinea-pigs","volume":"594","author":"Fabris","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2017.61","article-title":"Autoimmune channelopathies as a novel mechanism in cardiac arrhythmias","volume":"14","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1717","article-title":"Systemic inflammation and arrhythmic risk: Lessons from rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"38","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2015.00026","article-title":"Long QT syndrome: An emerging role for inflammation and immunity","volume":"2","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medenwald, D., Kors, J.A., Loppnow, H., Thiery, J., Kluttig, A., Nuding, S., Tiller, D., Greiser, K.H., Werdan, K., and Haerting, J. (2014). Inflammation and prolonged QT time: Results from the cardiovascular disease, living and ageing in Halle (CARLA) study. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0095994"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000017493.03108.1C","article-title":"Prospective study of C reactive protein, homocysteine, and plasma lipid levels as predictors of sudden cardiac death","volume":"105","author":"Albert","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfq229","article-title":"Prognostic electrocardiographic parameters in patients with suspected myocarditis","volume":"13","author":"Ukena","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"715","article-title":"Elevated IL-1b levels in anti-Ro\/SSA connective tissue diseases patients with prolonged corrected QTc interval","volume":"33","author":"Pisoni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.113.000152","article-title":"Development and validation of a risk score to predict QT interval prolongation in hospitalized patients","volume":"6","author":"Tisdale","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.22455","article-title":"Antiarrhythmic potential of anticytokine therapy in rheumatoid arthritis: Tocilizumab reduces corrected QT interval by controlling systemic inflammation","volume":"67","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken)"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehr082","article-title":"Genetics of sudden death: Focus on inherited channelopathies","volume":"32","author":"Cerrone","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.009800","article-title":"Pathogenesis of the novel autoimmune-associated long-QT syndrome","volume":"132","author":"Yue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccep.2016.02.002","article-title":"Potassium channel block and novel autoimmune-associated long QT syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Boutjdir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Card Electrophysiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.3109\/s10165-008-0028-1","article-title":"Prevalence of disease-specific antinuclear antibodies in general population: Estimates from annual physical examinations of residents of a small town over a 5-year period","volume":"18","author":"Hayashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mod. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2005.08.017","article-title":"Novel autoantibodies to a voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.4 in a severe form of myasthenia gravis","volume":"170","author":"Suzuki","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12234","article-title":"Cardiac involvements in myasthenia gravis associated with anti-Kv1.4 antibodies","volume":"21","author":"Suzuki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1004","article-title":"Repetitive exercise induced ventricular tachycardia in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis taking low dose methotrexate","volume":"19","author":"Borek","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1958","article-title":"Arrhythmic risk during acute infusion of infliximab: A prospective, single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study in patients with chronic arthritis","volume":"35","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1053\/sarh.2000.8367","article-title":"Giant cell myocarditis: Most fatal of autoimmune diseases","volume":"30","author":"Rosenstein","year":"2000","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/eut290","article-title":"Evidence for cardiac safety and antiarrhythmic potential of chloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"16","author":"Teixeira","year":"2014","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-011-2240-0","article-title":"Acute myocarditis and ventricular fibrillation as initial presentation of pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"33","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650500514558","article-title":"Chronic hydroxychloroquine use associated with QT prolongation and refractory ventricular arrhythmia","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"31","article-title":"Regression of tachycardiomyopathy after implant of pacemaker with antitachycardial function","volume":"60","author":"Couto","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mavrogeni, S., Gargani, L., Pepe, A., Monti, L., Markousis-Mavrogenis, G., De Santis, M., De Marchi, D., Koutsogeorgopoulou, L., Karabela, G., and Guiducci, S. (2019). Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Predicts Ventricular Arrhythmias in Scleroderma: The Scleroderma Arrhythmia Clinical Utility Study [SAnCtUS] Rheumatology, Oxford Academic. (in press).","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kez494"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e26","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1756-185X.2012.01701.x","article-title":"Recurrent ventricular tachycardia in a child with juvenile dermatomyositis - an unusual association","volume":"15","author":"Jindal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.049882","article-title":"Inducible ventricular tachycardia due to dermatomyositis-related cardiomyopathy in the era of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy","volume":"125","author":"Dilaveris","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"919","article-title":"Cardiac effects of dermatomyositis. A case report","volume":"96","author":"Cuilleret","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Mal. Coeur Vaiss."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1136\/heart.88.5.443","article-title":"Ventricular tachycardia as a presenting feature of dermatomyositis","volume":"88","author":"Adler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1538","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehi180","article-title":"Focal uptake on 18F-fluoro- 2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography images indicates cardiac involvement of sarcoidosis","volume":"26","author":"Ishimaru","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2009.02.007","article-title":"International Consensus Group on Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Myocarditis. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: A JACC White Paper","volume":"53","author":"Friedrich","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.09.072","article-title":"Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Nonischemic Myocardial Inflammation: Expert Recommendations","volume":"72","author":"Ferreira","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2014.01.005","article-title":"Edema and fibrosis imaging by cardiovascular magnetic resonance: How can the experience of Cardiology be best utilized in rheumatological practice?","volume":"44","author":"Mavrogeni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2016.04.158","article-title":"Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in rheumatology: Current status and recommendations for use","volume":"217","author":"Mavrogeni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200003093421003","article-title":"Long-term outcome of fulminant myocarditis as compared with acute (nonfulminant) myocarditis","volume":"342","author":"McCarthy","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.171207","article-title":"Progression of Left Ventricular Myocardial Dysfunction in Systemic Sclerosis: A Speckle-tracking Strain Echocardiography Study","volume":"46","author":"Ninaber","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.15171\/jcvtr.2018.40","article-title":"Early diagnosis of cardiac involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus via global longitudinal strain (GLS) by speckle tracking echocardiography","volume":"10","author":"Nikdoust","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Thorac. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0800028","article-title":"Myocarditis","volume":"360","author":"Cooper","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehn296","article-title":"Acute viral myocarditis","volume":"29","author":"Dennert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2015.08.014","article-title":"Incidence of abnormal positron emission tomography in patients with unexplained cardiomyopathy and ventricular arrhythmias: The potential role of occult inflammation in arrhythmogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Tung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2018-314631","article-title":"Cardiac magnetic resonance in patients with elevated troponin and normal coronary angiography","volume":"105","author":"Bhatia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.J., Pak, K., and Kim, K. (2019). Diagnostic performance of F-18 FDG PET for detection of cardiac sarcoidosis; A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Nucl. Cardiol., 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-018-01582-y"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Ha, F.J., Agarwal, S., Tweed, K., Palmer, S.C., Adams, H.S., Thillai, M., and Williams, L. (2019). Imaging in Suspected Cardiac Sarcoidosis: A Diagnostic Challenge. Curr. Cardiol. Rev., 1\u201313."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H83","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00536.2003","article-title":"Cardioprotective effects of carvedilol on acute autoimmune myocarditis: Anti-inflammatory effects associated with antioxidant property","volume":"286","author":"Yuan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(99)00234-X","article-title":"Beta-blocker use and survival in patients with ventricular fibrillation or symptomatic ventricular tachycardia: The Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) trial","volume":"34","author":"Exner","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199612263352601","article-title":"Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial Investigators","volume":"335","author":"Moss","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa013474","article-title":"Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction","volume":"346","author":"Moss","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043399","article-title":"Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure","volume":"352","author":"Bardy","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1608029","article-title":"Defibrillator implantation in patients with nonischemic systolic heart failure","volume":"375","author":"Kober","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"e91","article-title":"2017 AHA\/ACC\/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society","volume":"72","author":"Stevenson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2016.07.233","article-title":"High mass (>18g) of late gadolinium enhancement on CMR imaging is associated with major cardiac events on long-term outcome in patients with biopsy-proven extracardiac sarcoidosis","volume":"222","author":"Kouaho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2013-305187","article-title":"Extensive late gadolinium enhancement on cardiovascular magnetic resonance predicts adverse outcomes and lack of improvement in LV function after steroid therapy in cardiac sarcoidosis","volume":"100","author":"Ise","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.12201","article-title":"Right ventricular involvement and the extent of left ventricular enhancement with magnetic resonance predict adverse outcome in pulmonary sarcoidosis","volume":"5","author":"Smedema","year":"2018","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.113.000156","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging for identifying patients with cardiac sarcoidosis and preserved or mildly reduced left ventricular function at risk of ventricular arrhythmias","volume":"7","author":"Crawford","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.114.002145","article-title":"Ventricular tachycardia in cardiac sarcoidosis: Characterization of ventricular substrate and outcomes of catheter ablation","volume":"8","author":"Kumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e469","DOI":"10.1097\/MJT.0000000000000928","article-title":"Prevention of Recurrent Ventricular Tachycardia in Patients With Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators-A Network Meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Malik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(02)01223-8","article-title":"Myocarditis in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"113","author":"Wijetunga","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.166029","article-title":"Lupus myocarditis: A case-control study from China","volume":"128","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0000000000000232","article-title":"Myocarditis successfully treated with intravenous immunoglobulin in a patient with systemic lupus erythematous and myositis","volume":"347","author":"Barnado","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2017.68692","article-title":"Myocarditis due to systemic lupus erythematosus associated with cardiogenic shock","volume":"14","author":"Tariq","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2010.09.014","article-title":"Adult-onset Still\u2019s disease with myocarditis successfully treated with the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist anakinra","volume":"78","author":"Raffeiner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Joint Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.118.310957","article-title":"Advances in Therapies and Imaging for Systemic Vasculitis","volume":"39","author":"Farrah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3109\/03009740903493741","article-title":"Successful control of scleroderma myocarditis using a combination of cyclophosphamide and methylprednisolone","volume":"39","author":"Stack","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scand J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"431","article-title":"Glucocorticoid effects on myocardial performance in patients with systemic sclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Antoniades","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."}],"container-title":["Diagnostics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/9\/4\/217\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:41:01Z","timestamp":1760190061000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4418\/9\/4\/217"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["diagnostics9040217"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diagnostics9040217","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4418"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4418","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]}}}