{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T14:43:01Z","timestamp":1791816181255,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]],"date-time":"2023-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A balanced diet is achieved not only via the consumption of a variety of food products but also by ensuring that we take in sufficient quantities the micronutrients necessary for the adequate functioning of the human body, such as vitamins, an important one of which is vitamin D. Vitamin D has been closely linked to bone health. Vitamin D deficiency has often been associated with negative effects concerning several pregnancy adverse outcomes, the most important of which are the birth of SGA newborns, premature birth, and, finally, preeclampsia, which are discussed in this work. The aim of this review is to critically summarize and scrutinize whether the concentration of vitamin D in the blood serum of pregnant women in all its forms may be correlated with the risk of preeclampsia during pregnancy and whether vitamin D levels could act both as a protective agent or as a risk factor or even a prognostic measure of the disease. The association of vitamin D levels with the onset of preeclampsia was examined by searching the PubMed and Google Scholar databases. A total of 31 clinical trials were identified and included in this review, with the aim of summarizing the recent data concerning vitamin D levels and the risk of preeclampsia. Among them, 16 were published in the last five years, and 13 were published within the last a decade. Most studies showed a significant association between vitamin D deficiency and preeclampsia risk. It was also found that the higher the dose, the lower the risk of disease. Of the 31 articles, only 7 of them did not show a significant difference between vitamin D levels and preeclampsia regardless of comorbidity. The results of this review suggest that there is indeed an association between the concentration of vitamin D during pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia; however, further studies are strongly recommended to derive conclusive evidence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases11040158","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T02:41:56Z","timestamp":1698979316000},"page":"158","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Vitamin D Deficiency as a Risk Factor of Preeclampsia during Pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Chrysoula","family":"Giourga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sousana K.","family":"Papadopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gavriela","family":"Voulgaridou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Calliope","family":"Karastogiannidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2878-4831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Constantinos","family":"Giaginis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Environment, University of the Aegean, 81400 Myrina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agathi","family":"Pritsa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Mccollum, E.V., Pitz, W., Simmonds, N., Becker, J.E., Shipley, P.G., and Bunting, R.W. (2002). The effect of additions of fluorine to the diet of the rat on the quality of the teeth. 1925. Studies on experimental rickets. XXI. An experimental demonstration of the existence of a vitamin which promotes calcium deposition. 1922. The effect of additions of fluorine to the diet of the rat on the quality of the teeth. 1925. J. Biol. Chem., 277."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"121e4","article-title":"Jedrzej Sniadecki (1768\u20131838) on the cure of rickets","volume":"143","author":"Mozolowski","year":"1939","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"203","article-title":"Vitamin D Deficiency and Rickets","volume":"19","author":"Finberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lond. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2019.04.007","article-title":"Vitamin D and health\u2014The missing vitamin in humans","volume":"Volume 60","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatrics and Neonatology"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"478","article-title":"Rickets before the discovery of vitamin D","volume":"3","author":"Bijvoet","year":"2014","journal-title":"BoneKEy Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Glisson, F., Armin, P., Bate, G., and Regemorter, A. (1951). A Treatise of the Rickets: Being a Disease Common to Children, John Streater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/60.4.619","article-title":"McCollum Award Lecture, 1994: Vitamin D\u2014New horizons for the 21st century","volume":"60","author":"Holick","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Moore, S. (1728). Dissertatio Medica Inauguralis de Rachitide, Balfour et Smellie."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Trousseau, A. (1868). Lectures on Clinical Medicine, The New Sydenham Society. Lecture 86; Rickets 90\u201394; Translated by Cormack K.B."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1917.02590460009002","article-title":"Prophylactic therapy for rickets in a Negro community","volume":"69","author":"Hess","year":"1917","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Mellanby, E. (1921). Experimental Rickets, H.M. Stationery Office. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.gr\/books?id=yLMfAAAAIAAJ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"400","article-title":"Metabolizmus vitaminu D [Vitamin D metabolism]","volume":"58","author":"Kulda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vnitr. Lek."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/135.2.317","article-title":"Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: Implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D","volume":"135","author":"Hollis","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.06.036","article-title":"Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in early-onset severe preeclampsia","volume":"203","author":"Robinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"De-Regil, L.M., Palacios, C., Lombardo, L.K., and Pe\u00f1a-Rosas, J.P. (2016). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, John Wiley and Sons Ltd."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2004). Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition, World Health Organization. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1038\/bonekey.2013.213","article-title":"History of the discovery of vitamin D and its active metabolites","volume":"3","author":"DeLuca","year":"2014","journal-title":"BoneKEy Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114521002956","article-title":"Dietary and serum vitamin D and preeclampsia risk in Chinese pregnant women: A matched case-control study","volume":"128","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1009570","article-title":"Clinical practice Vitamin D Insufficiency","volume":"364","author":"Rosen","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-8210.137485","article-title":"The Asia-Pacific Regional Audit-Epidemiology, costs, and burden of osteoporosis in India 2013: A report of International Osteoporosis Foundation","volume":"18","author":"Mithal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-016-2226-3","article-title":"Adverse Perinatal Outcomes and Postpartum Multi-Systemic Dysregulation: Adding Vitamin D Deficiency to the Allostatic Load Index","volume":"21","author":"Accortt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2013.765849","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D status and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Wei","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Powrie, R., Greene, M., and Camann, W. (2010). De Swiet\u2019s Medical Disorders in Obstetric Practice, Blackwell Publishing. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444323016"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.10803","article-title":"Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis, and management recommendations for international practice","volume":"72","author":"Brown","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Hypertension in Pregnancy (2013). Report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists\u2019 Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 122, 1122\u20131131."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2012.11.001","article-title":"The definition of severe and early-onset preeclampsia. Statements from the International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy (ISSHP)","volume":"3","author":"Tranquilli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogoh.2020.101975","article-title":"Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology and management","volume":"50","author":"Nirupama","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gynecol. Obstet. Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"4108271","article-title":"Early-and Late-Onset Preeclampsia: A Comprehensive Cohort Study of Laboratory and Clinical Findings according to the New ISHHP Criteria","volume":"2019","author":"Babczyk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.5468\/ogs.2020.63.3.270","article-title":"A study to compare maternal and perinatal outcome in early vs. late onset preeclampsia","volume":"63","author":"Wadhwani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20708","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00250-5","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency during late pregnancy mediates placenta-associated complications","volume":"11","author":"Sarkis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"4654828","article-title":"Determinants of Preeclampsia among Women Attending Delivery Services in Public Hospitals of Central Tigray, Northern Ethiopia: A Case-Control Study","volume":"19","author":"Haile","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2018.03.006","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency and pre-eclampsia in Colombia: PREVitD study","volume":"14","author":"Serrano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S18","DOI":"10.1111\/nure.12055","article-title":"Epidemiology of preeclampsia: Impact of obesity","volume":"71","author":"Jeyabalan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"8249264","article-title":"The Effects of Vitamin D Supplement on Prevention of Recurrence of Preeclampsia in Pregnant Women with a History of Preeclampsia","volume":"2017","author":"Zandvakili","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr168","article-title":"Intake of probiotic food and risk of preeclampsia in primiparous women","volume":"174","author":"Brantsaeter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Health Organization International Collaborative Study of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy (1986). Geographic variation in the incidence of hypertension. 1n pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 158, 80\u201383.","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(88)90782-X"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)17987-2","article-title":"Pre-eclampsia","volume":"365","author":"Sibai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2009.02.010","article-title":"The Global Impact of Pre-eclampsia and Eclampsia","volume":"33","author":"Duley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2008.20","article-title":"Secular trends in the rates of preeclampsia, eclampsia, and gestational hypertension, United States, 1987\u20132004","volume":"21","author":"Wallis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"181","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia","volume":"102","author":"Sibai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karpova, N., Dmitrenko, O., Arshinova, E., and Nurbekov, M. (2022). Review: Influence of 25(OH)D Blood Concentration and Supplementation during Pregnancy on Preeclampsia Development and Neonatal Outcomes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232112935"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayoubi (2011). Pre-eclampsia: Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Vasc. Health Risk Manag., 7, 467\u2013474.","DOI":"10.2147\/VHRM.S20181"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2016.12.019","article-title":"Dysregulation of maternal and placental vitamin D metabolism in preeclampsia","volume":"50","author":"Tamblyn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2015.08.042","article-title":"Why is placentation abnormal in preeclampsia?","volume":"213","author":"Fisher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.02.015","article-title":"Relationship between vitamin D status in pregnancy and the risk for preeclampsia: A nested case-control study","volume":"39","author":"Benachi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.1972.tb12922.x","article-title":"On the pathogenesis of placental infarcts in pre-eclampsia","volume":"79","author":"Brosens","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2000.107928","article-title":"Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy","volume":"183","author":"Roccella","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06951","article-title":"Deficiency in catechol-O-methyltransferase and 2-methoxyoestradiol is associated with pre-eclampsia","volume":"453","author":"Kanasaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.313276","article-title":"Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology, Challenges, and Perspectives","volume":"124","author":"Rana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)64849-3","article-title":"Onset of Maternal Arterial Blood Flow and Placental Oxidative Stress A Possible Factor in Human Early Pregnancy Failure","volume":"157","author":"Jauniaux","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Karrar, S.A., and Hong, P.L. (2023). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2014.02.001","article-title":"The classification, diagnosis and management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: A revised statement from the ISSHP","volume":"4","author":"Tranquilli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000054981.03589.E9","article-title":"Summary of the NHLBI Working Group on research on hypertension during pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"Roberts","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Williams, J.W. (2014). Williams Obstetrics, McGraw Hill\/Medical."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2019.1640675","article-title":"Association of maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with risk of preeclampsia: A nested case-control study and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Yuan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Matern. -Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2017-0391","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency in childhood: Old lessons and current challenge","volume":"31","author":"Antonucci","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI109308","article-title":"Rapid Publications Elevated 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D Plasma Levels in Normal Human Pregnancy and Lactation","volume":"63","author":"Kumar","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-1894","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency in children and its management: Review of current knowledge and recommendations","volume":"122","author":"Misra","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1773","article-title":"Update in vitamin D","volume":"95","author":"Adams","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e4rebring, L., Bullarbo, M., Glantz, A., Leu Agelii, M., Jagner, \u00c5., Ellis, J., Hulth\u00e9n, L., Schoenmakers, I., and Augustin, H. (2016). Preeclampsia and Blood Pressure Trajectory during Pregnancy in Relation to Vitamin D Status. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152198"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelly, C.B., Wagner, C.L., Shary, J.R., Leyva, M.J., Yu, J.Y., Jenkins, A.J., Nankervis, A.J., Hanssen, K.F., Garg, S.K., and Scardo, J.A. (2020). Vitamin D metabolites and binding protein predict preeclampsia in women with type 1 diabetes. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.22541\/au.159007753.32992138"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1917789","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.17789","article-title":"Vitamin D and Calcium for the Prevention of Fracture: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-2760(00)00336-2","article-title":"Acquisition of optimal bone mass in childhood and adolescence","volume":"12","author":"Bachrach","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050312119837480","DOI":"10.1177\/2050312119837480","article-title":"The effects of indoor and outdoor sports participation and seasonal changes on vitamin D levels in athletes","volume":"7","author":"Deniz","year":"2019","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-012-1964-3","article-title":"A systematic review of hip fracture incidence and probability of fracture worldwide","volume":"23","author":"Kanis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Voulgaridou, G., Papadopoulou, S.K., Detopoulou, P., Tsoumana, D., Giaginis, C., Kondyli, F.S., Lymperaki, E., and Pritsa, A. (2023). Vitamin D and Calcium in Osteoporosis, and the Role of Bone Turnover Markers: A Narrative Review of Recent Data from RCTs. Diseases, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases11010029"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2005.08.047","article-title":"Epidemiology, etiology, and diagnosis of osteoporosis","volume":"194","author":"Lane","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.22203\/eCM.v035a25","article-title":"Calcium and vitamin D in bone fracture healing and post-traumatic bone turnover","volume":"35","author":"Fischer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Cells Mater."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10817","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO00787K","article-title":"Effects of combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38258.566262.7C","article-title":"Maternal blood pressure in pregnancy, birth weight, and perinatal mortality in first births: Prospective study","volume":"329","author":"Steer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)68397-9","article-title":"Articles WHO analysis of causes of maternal death: A systematic review","volume":"367","author":"Khan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114516003202","article-title":"The relationship between 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in early pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes in a large, prospective cohort","volume":"116","author":"Boyle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3517","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-0718","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of preeclampsia","volume":"92","author":"Bodnar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12058","article-title":"The relationship of serum vitamin D with pre-eclampsia in the Iranian women","volume":"10","author":"Abedi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"331","article-title":"Vitamin D and Pre-Eclampsia: Original data, systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"63","author":"Cavadino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0033-1345199","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency and the risk of preeclampsia and eclampsia in Bangladesh","volume":"45","author":"Ullah","year":"2013","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2012.10.888","article-title":"A randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation in 2 community health center networks in South Carolina","volume":"208","author":"Wagner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Mackillop, L. (2017). Vitamin D Supplementation in Pregnancy, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2006.1.27","article-title":"The Effect of High-Dose Vitamin D Supplementation on Serum Vitamin D Levels and Milk Calcium Concentration in Lactating Women and Their Infants","volume":"1","author":"Basile","year":"2006","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1752S","article-title":"Vitamin D requirements during lactation: High-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant 1\u20134","volume":"80","author":"Hollis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13968","article-title":"Global prevalence and disease burden of vitamin D deficiency: A roadmap for action in low-and middle-income countries","volume":"1430","author":"Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dym247","article-title":"Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Nnoaham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61889-2","article-title":"High-dose vitamin D3 during intensive-phase antimicrobial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: A double-blind randomised controlled trial","volume":"377","author":"Martineau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e180","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-0442","article-title":"Cord-blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of respiratory infection, wheezing, and asthma","volume":"127","author":"Camargo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1513","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-3054","article-title":"Cord blood vitamin D deficiency is associated with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis","volume":"127","author":"Belderbos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2011.3.4.251","article-title":"The relationship between serum 25 hydroxy vitamin D levels and asthma in children","volume":"3","author":"Alyasin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2017.07.018","article-title":"The Association of Maternal Asthma and Early Pregnancy Vitamin D with Risk of Preeclampsia: An Observation From Vitamin D Antenatal Asthma Reduction Trial (VDAART)","volume":"6","author":"Mirzakhani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M.J., Kim, S.-N., Lee, Y.W., Choe, Y.B., and Ahn, K.J. (2016). Vitamin D status and efficacy of vitamin D supplementation in atopic dermatitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8120789"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.08.002","article-title":"Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation for winter-related atopic dermatitis in children","volume":"134","author":"Camargo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29449","article-title":"Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets","volume":"116","author":"Holick","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.3390\/children1020208","article-title":"Vitamin d in children\u2019s health","volume":"1","author":"Weydert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Children"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poniedzia\u0142ek-Czajkowska, E., and Mierzy\u0144ski, R. (2021). Could vitamin D be effective in prevention of preeclampsia?. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13113854"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.5455\/msm.2015.27.318-322","article-title":"A Comparison of Serum Levels of 25-hydroxy Vitamin D in Pregnant Women at Risk for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Women Without Risk Factors","volume":"27","author":"Jafarzadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Socio Medica"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1080\/09513590.2018.1548593","article-title":"Lower vitamin D levels during the second trimester are associated with developing gestational diabetes mellitus: An observational cross-sectional study","volume":"35","author":"Ede","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-015-0579-4","article-title":"Preeclampsia and Diabetes","volume":"15","author":"Weissgerber","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1159\/000357944","article-title":"Assessment of pregestational insulin resistance as a risk factor of preeclampsia","volume":"77","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gynecol. Obstet. Investig."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2011.02.024","article-title":"Maternal insulin resistance and preeclampsia","volume":"204","author":"Hauth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2014.06.026","article-title":"A population-based study of associations between preeclampsia and later cardiovascular risk factors","volume":"211","author":"Alsnes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-010-9527-4","article-title":"Risk of diabetes after gestational diabetes and preeclampsia. A registry-based study of 230,000 women in Norway","volume":"26","author":"Engeland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feig, D.S., Shah, B.R., Lipscombe, L.L., Wu, C.F., Ray, J.G., Lowe, J., Hwee, J., and Booth, G.L. (2013). Preeclampsia as a Risk Factor for Diabetes: A Population-Based Cohort Study. PLOS Med., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001425"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-006-0558-z","article-title":"Pre-eclampsia and the later development of type 2 diabetes in mothers and their children: An intergenerational study from the Walker cohort","volume":"50","author":"Libby","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.128751","article-title":"Elevated blood pressure in pregnancy and subsequent chronic disease risk","volume":"127","author":"Mendola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwu118","article-title":"Pregnancy-induced hypertension and diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes hospitalization in the year following delivery","volume":"180","author":"Savitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freimane, K.Z., Kerrigan, L., Eastwood, K.-A., and Watson, C.J. (2022). Pre-Eclampsia Biomarkers for Women With Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Comprehensive Review of Recent Literature. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.809528"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-2145","article-title":"Serum carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins in women with type 1 diabetes and preeclampsia: A longitudinal study","volume":"34","author":"Azar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.13180","article-title":"Vitamin D insufficiency, preterm delivery and preeclampsia in women with type 1 diabetes\u2014An observational study","volume":"96","author":"Vestgaard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Et Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.02.023","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation in pregnancy on risk of pre-eclampsia\u2014Randomized controlled trial","volume":"38","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"1107","article-title":"Supplementation of vitamin D in pregnant women with 25(OH) D deficiency and risk of preeclampsia development improves perinatal outcomes","volume":"3","author":"Manasova","year":"2021","journal-title":"PharmacologyOnLine"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naghshineh, E., and Sheikhaliyan, S. (2016). Effect of vitamin D supplementation in the reduce risk of preeclampsia in nulliparous women. Adv. Biomed. Res., 5.","DOI":"10.4103\/2277-9175.175239"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dahma, G., Neamtu, R., Nitu, R., Gluhovschi, A., Bratosin, F., Grigoras, M.L., Silaghi, C., Citu, C., Orlu, I.N., and Bhattarai, S. (2022). The Influence of Maternal Vitamin D Supplementation in Pregnancies Associated with Preeclampsia: A Case-Control Study. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153008"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2936","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2018-00109","article-title":"Effectiveness of prenatal Vitamin D deficiency screening and treatment program: A stratified randomized field trial","volume":"103","author":"Rostami","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1515\/jpm-2020-0318","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation during pregnancy on high risk factors\u2014A randomized controlled trial","volume":"49","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4702","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI89031","article-title":"Early pregnancy Vitamin D status and risk of preeclampsia","volume":"126","author":"Mirzakhani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/jhn.12339","article-title":"The effects of vitamin D plus calcium supplementation on metabolic profiles, biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress and pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women at risk for pre-eclampsia","volume":"29","author":"Samimi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. Off. J. Br. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.29252\/ijrm.15.5.273","article-title":"The effects of multi mineral-vitamin D and vitamins (C+E) supplementation in the prevention of preeclampsia: An RCT","volume":"15","author":"Azami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Reprod. BioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2014.07.012","article-title":"First trimester vitamin D status and placental epigenomics in preeclampsia among Northern Plains primiparas","volume":"129","author":"Anderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2019.01.003","article-title":"Relationship between low maternal vitamin D status and the risk of severe preeclampsia: A case control study","volume":"15","author":"Pashapour","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2021.07.005","article-title":"No effect of calcium and vitamin D intake on maternal blood pressure in a healthy pregnant population","volume":"264","author":"Forde","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000039","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D status and the risk of mild and severe preeclampsia","volume":"25","author":"Bodnar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2000515","article-title":"Maternal and Cord Blood 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 Are Associated with Increased Cord Blood and Naive and Activated Regulatory T Cells: The Barwon Infant Study","volume":"206","author":"Thorsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqx003","article-title":"Adherence to a healthy eating index for pregnant women is associated with lower neonatal adiposity in a multiethnic Asian cohort: The Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) Study","volume":"107","author":"Chia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2014.02.001","article-title":"Vitamin D status and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy","volume":"24","author":"Burris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.116.130419","article-title":"Vitamin D status is associated with uteroplacental dysfunction indicated by pre-eclampsia and small-for-gestational-age birth in a large prospective pregnancy cohort in Ireland with low Vitamin D status","volume":"104","author":"Kiely","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fogacci, S., Fogacci, F., and Cicero, A.F. (2020). Nutraceuticals and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy: The available clinical evidence. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020378"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-010-0483-5","article-title":"Hemodynamic and neurohumoral profile in patients with different types of hypertension in pregnancy","volume":"6","author":"Borghi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1111\/jch.12614","article-title":"Independent Determinants of Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in a Sample of Pregnant Outpatients With Normal Blood Pressure, Chronic Hypertension, Gestational Hypertension, and Preeclampsia","volume":"17","author":"Cicero","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2011.11.018","article-title":"Vitamin D, the placenta and pregnancy","volume":"523","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."}],"container-title":["Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/11\/4\/158\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:16:16Z","timestamp":1760130976000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/11\/4\/158"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["diseases11040158"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diseases11040158","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-9721"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-9721","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]]}}}