{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T06:47:28Z","timestamp":1785394048987,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common genitourinary malignancy in men, with a multifactorial etiology influenced by genetic, environmental, and microbial determinants. Although the prostate was traditionally considered sterile, advances in microbiome research have challenged this view, revealing potential links between microbial communities and PCa development, progression, and treatment response. This review synthesizes evidence on the gut, urinary, seminal fluid, and prostatic microbiomes, highlighting their potential contributions to PCa pathogenesis and therapeutic outcomes. Key studies utilizing next-generation sequencing (NGS), whole-genome sequencing (WGS), PCR, and metagenomic analyses have identified specific bacterial and fungal taxa associated with Pca; however, findings remain inconsistent across methodologies and cohorts. Microorganisms such as Propionibacterium acnes and Pseudomonas spp. may modulate inflammation, immune responses, and resistance to androgen-deprivation therapy. Further research is required to determine whether microbial signatures can serve as reliable biomarkers for early detection, prognosis, or novel therapeutic strategies in PCa management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases13090294","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T14:53:01Z","timestamp":1757083981000},"page":"294","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Decoding Microbiome\u2019s Role in Prostate Cancer Progression and Treatment Response"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Minas","family":"Sakellakis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Jacobi North Central Bronx Hospital, The Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Panagiota","family":"Resta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evangelia","family":"Papagianni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5413-3287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kassandra A.","family":"Procter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Belouka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2698-9772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Gioti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9882-3221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fragkiski","family":"Anthouli-Anagnostopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2313-1305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Chaniotis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5639-0528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Apostolos","family":"Beloukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00367-2","article-title":"Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"403","author":"Naghavi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00757-8","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"403","author":"Ferrari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"12","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2024","volume":"74","author":"Siegel","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2022.11278","article-title":"Patterns of indolence in prostate cancer","volume":"23","author":"Sakellakis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1606220","article-title":"10-Year Outcomes after Monitoring, Surgery, or Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Cancer","volume":"375","author":"Hamdy","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2015.02.041","article-title":"Sterile Urine and the Presence of Bacteria","volume":"68","author":"Wolfe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1973.03220240022006","article-title":"Bacterial prostatitis vs \u2018prostatosis\u2019. A clinical and bacteriological study","volume":"224","author":"Meares","year":"1973","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2022.03.039","article-title":"Effect of Helicobacter pylori Eradication on Gastric Cancer Prevention: Updated Report from a Randomized Controlled Trial With 26.5 Years of Follow-up","volume":"163","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e280","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00128-1","article-title":"Whipple\u2019s disease and Tropheryma whipplei infections: From bench to bedside","volume":"22","author":"Boumaza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16086","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.86","article-title":"Carcinogenic human papillomavirus infection","volume":"2","author":"Schiffman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-011-0692-6","article-title":"Human papillomavirus 16 or 18 infection and prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis","volume":"180","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ir. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, R., Zheng, H., Cai, H., Li, M., Shi, Y., and Ding, S. (2022). Effects of helicobacter pylori on tumor microenvironment and immunotherapy responses. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.923477"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc4552","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc4552","article-title":"The microbiome and human cancer","volume":"371","author":"Zitvogel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Ren, Q., Zhong, Z., Li, Q., Huang, Z., Zhang, C., Yuan, H., Feng, Z., Chen, B., and Wang, N. (2024). Exploring the gut microbiome\u2019s role in colorectal cancer: Diagnostic and prognostic implications. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1431747"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A\u011fag\u00fcnd\u00fcz, D., Cocozza, E., Cemali, \u00d6., Bayaz\u0131t, A., Nan\u00ec, M., Cerqua, I., Morgillo, F., Sayg\u0131l\u0131, S., Berni, C.R., and Amero, P. (2023). Understanding the role of the gut microbiome in gastrointestinal cancer: A review. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1130562"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, W., Huang, G., Wang, D., Xu, Y., Qiu, J., Pei, B., Qian, D., and Meng, X. (2023). Gut microbiome causal impacts on the prognosis of breast cancer: A Mendelian randomization study. BMC Genom., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-023-09608-7"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiertsema, S.P., van Bergenhenegouwen, J., Garssen, J., and Knippels, L.M.J. (2021). The interplay between the gut microbiome and the immune system in the context of infectious diseases throughout life and the role of nutrition in optimizing treatment strategies. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030886"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01694-6","article-title":"Nivolumab plus ipilimumab with or without live bacterial supplementation in metastatic renal cell carcinoma: A randomized phase 1 trial","volume":"28","author":"Dizman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"210","article-title":"Prostate Cancer Immunotherapy: A Review of Recent Advancements with Novel Treatment Methods and Efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Exp. Urol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-021-00413-5","article-title":"The microbiome and prostate cancer","volume":"25","author":"McKay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2017.08.039","article-title":"The Role of Gut Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Prostate Cancer: A Prospective, Pilot Study","volume":"111","author":"Golombos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2021.100928","article-title":"The importance of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in human health and diseases","volume":"43","author":"Parsaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2022.07.003","article-title":"Butyrate-producing Eubacterium rectale suppresses lymphomagenesis by alleviating the TNF-induced TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u03baB axis","volume":"30","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.21037\/tau-20-566","article-title":"Compositional differences of gut microbiome in matched hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Androl. Urol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1084","article-title":"An expanded metabolic pathway for androgen production by commensal bacteria","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf8403","article-title":"Commensal bacteria promote endocrine resistance in prostate cancer through androgen biosynthesis","volume":"374","author":"Pernigoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23713","article-title":"A prospective study to examine the association of the urinary and fecal microbiota with prostate cancer diagnosis after transrectal biopsy of the prostate using 16sRNA gene analysis","volume":"79","author":"Alanee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2015.50970","article-title":"Urinary microbiota in patients with prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vacca, M., Celano, G., Calabrese, F.M., Portincasa, P., Gobbetti, M., and De Angelis, M. (2020). The controversial role of human gut lachnospiraceae. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8040573"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2017.08.001","article-title":"Profiling the Urinary Microbiome in Men with Positive versus Negative Biopsies for Prostate Cancer","volume":"199","author":"Shrestha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euo.2022.03.006","article-title":"Microbiomes of Urine and the Prostate Are Linked to Human Prostate Cancer Risk Groups","volume":"5","author":"Hurst","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, M., Pina-Vaz, T., Fernandes, \u00c2., Miranda, I., Silva, C., Rodrigues, A., and Lisboa, C. (2023). Microbiota of Urine, Glans and Prostate Biopsies in Patients with Prostate Cancer Reveals a Dysbiosis in the Genitourinary System. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15051423"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"412","article-title":"Metabolic Biosynthesis Pathways Identified from Fecal Microbiome Associated with Prostate Cancer","volume":"5","author":"Liss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-022-00602-w","article-title":"Urinary microbiota and prostatic diseases: The key for the lock? A systematic review","volume":"26","author":"Mjaess","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Gnanasekar, A., Lee, A., Li, W., Haas, M., Wang-Rodriguez, J., Chang, E., Rajasekaran, M., and Ongkeko, W. (2020). Influence of intratumor microbiome on clinical outcome and immune processes in prostate cancer. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12092524"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-008-8087-0","article-title":"Cancer immunotherapy using Listeria monocytogenes and listerial virulence factors","volume":"42","author":"Wood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23897","article-title":"Metagenomic analysis reveals a rich bacterial content in high-risk prostate tumors from African men","volume":"79","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20680","article-title":"A molecular analysis of prokaryotic and viral DNA sequences in prostate tissue from patients with prostate cancer indicates the presence of multiple and diverse microorganisms","volume":"68","author":"Sfanos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(98)00553-6","article-title":"Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplification of Bacterial 16s rRNA Genes in Prostate Biopsies from Men Without Chronic Prostatitis","volume":"53","author":"Keay","year":"1999","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(05)67145-5","article-title":"Bacterial DNA Sequences in Prostate Tissue from Patients with Prostate Cancer and Chronic Prostatitis","volume":"164","author":"Krieger","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(05)67987-6","article-title":"Evaluation of the Bacterial Flora of the Prostate Using a 16S rRNA Gene Based Polymerase Chain Reaction","volume":"163","author":"Hochreiter","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1127","article-title":"Association between the presence of bacterial 16S RNA in prostate specimens taken during transurethral resection of prostate and subsequent risk of prostate cancer (Sweden)","volume":"17","author":"Alexeyev","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2017.03.029","article-title":"The Microbiome of the Prostate Tumor Microenvironment","volume":"72","author":"Cavarretta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-016-0074-9","article-title":"Frequency and typing of Propionibacterium acnes in prostate tissue obtained from men with and without prostate cancer","volume":"11","author":"Davidsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Agents Cancer"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-016-0112-7","article-title":"Characterisation of microbial communities within aggressive prostate cancer tissues","volume":"12","author":"Yow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Agents Cancer"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., and Wei, J. (2015). Identification of pathogen signatures in prostate cancer using RNA-seq. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0128955"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Y., Ramnarine, V., Bell, R., Volik, S., Davicioni, E., Hayes, V., Ren, S., and Collins, C. (2019). Metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analysis of human prostate microbiota from patients with prostate cancer. BMC Genom., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-019-5457-z"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"e17742","article-title":"Presence of Specific Periodontal Pathogens in Prostate Gland Diagnosed with Chronic Inflammation and Adenocarcinoma","volume":"13","author":"Alluri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgz008","article-title":"Microbiome signatures in prostate cancer","volume":"40","author":"Banerjee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyake, M., Ohnishi, K., Hori, S., Nakano, A., Nakano, R., Yano, H., Ohnishi, S., Owari, T., Morizawa, Y., and Itami, Y. (2019). Mycoplasma genitalium infection and chronic inflammation in human prostate cancer: Detection using prostatectomy and needle biopsy specimens. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8030212"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-022-01011-3","article-title":"Microbiota of the prostate tumor environment investigated by whole-transcriptome profiling","volume":"14","author":"Salachan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarkar, P., Malik, S., Banerjee, A., Datta, C., Pal, D., Ghosh, A., and Saha, A. (2022). Differential Microbial Signature Associated with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.894777"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"2574964","article-title":"Differential Circulating Fungal Microbiome in Prostate Cancer Patients Compared to Healthy Control Individuals","volume":"2022","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2018.02.050","article-title":"Viral etiology of prostate cancer: Genetic alterations and immune response. A literature review","volume":"52","author":"Abidi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, M.S., Salman, N., Sandhu, S., Cakir, M., Seddon, A., Kuehne, C., and Ashrafi, G. (2023). Detection of high-risk Human Papillomavirus in prostate cancer from a UK based population. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34734-3"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12765","DOI":"10.1007\/s13277-014-2604-7","article-title":"Detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA prevalence and p53 codon 72 (Arg72Pro) polymorphism in prostate cancer in a Greek group of patients","volume":"35","author":"Michopoulou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tumor Biol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, N., Hussain, S., Kakkar, N., Singh, S.K., Sobti, R.C., and Bharadwaj, M. (2015). Implication of high risk Human papillomavirus HR-HPV infection in prostate cancer in Indian population-A pioneering case-control analysis. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07822"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.3892\/br.2013.82","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus type 2 or human herpesvirus 8 infection and prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis","volume":"1","author":"Ge","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Classon, J., Stenudd, M., Zamboni, M., Alkass, K., Eriksson, C., Pedersen, L., Sch\u00f6rling, A., Thoss, A., Bergh, A., and Wikstr\u00f6m, P. (2025). Cytomegalovirus infection is common in prostate cancer and antiviral therapies inhibit progression in disease models. Mol. Oncol.","DOI":"10.1002\/1878-0261.70073"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.1851","article-title":"Polyomavirus BK and prostate cancer: A complex interaction of potential clinical relevance","volume":"25","author":"Keller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2010.77","article-title":"The human retrovirus XMRV in prostate cancer and chronic fatigue syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Silverman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leiros, G.J., Galliano, S.R., Sember, M.E., Kahn, T., Schwarz, E., and Eiguchi, K. (2005). Detection of human papillomavirus DNA and p53 codon 72 polymorphism in prostate carcinomas of patients from Argentina. BMC Urol., 5.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2490-5-15"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, J.N.E., Becker, G.L., Jackson, J.B., and Rysavy, M.B. (2024). Human Papillomavirus and Associated Cancers: A Review. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16050680"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2014.09.005","article-title":"Sexual partners, sexually transmitted infections, and prostate cancer risk","volume":"38","author":"Spence","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2011.225","article-title":"XMRV and prostate cancerg\u2014A \u2018final\u2019 perspective","volume":"9","author":"Sfanos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Chen, Y., and Wang, J. (2025). Role of Tumor Microenvironment in Prostate Cancer Immunometabolism. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15060826"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Fierro, M., Leach, R., Gomez-Guerra, L., Garza-Guajardo, R., Johnson-Pais, T., Beuten, J., Morales-Rodriguez, I., Hernandez-Ordo\u00f1ez, M., Calderon-Cardenas, G., and Ortiz-Lopez, R. (2010). Identification of Viral Infections in the Prostate and Evaluation of Their Association with Cancer. BMC Cancer, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2407-10-326"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2015.07.005","article-title":"The Microbiome and Cancer: Is the \u2018Oncobiome\u2019 Mirage Real?","volume":"1","author":"Thomas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2014.02.008","article-title":"Helicobacter pylori CagA and gastric cancer: A paradigm for hit-and-run carcinogenesis","volume":"15","author":"Hatakeyama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2023.01.011","article-title":"Computational methods and challenges in analyzing intratumoral microbiome data","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/13\/9\/294\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:40:26Z","timestamp":1760035226000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/13\/9\/294"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["diseases13090294"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diseases13090294","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-9721"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-9721","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]}}}