{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T05:50:55Z","timestamp":1787637055282,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 syndrome (GBS) is the most common acute inflammatory motor polyneuropathy. It affects all age groups, but the incidence increases with increasing age. Before manifesting with neurological symptoms, it is usually preceded by a prodromal phase of infection, most commonly respiratory or gastrointestinal. Pathologically, it is a post-infection immune disorder. The immune response is due to mimicry between the infecting agent and axolemmal surface molecules, which triggers an acute immune injury that leads to blockade of nerve conduction. Age-related decline in immune function plays a role in the increased prevalence and severity of GBS in older people. Typical neurological manifestations are ascending paralysis, areflexia and cranial nerve involvement, but sensory loss is uncommon. In up to 25% of cases, autonomic dysfunction occurs, which includes cardiovascular, sudomotor, gastrointestinal or genitourinary symptoms. The development of autonomic dysfunction in GBS is associated with poor prognosis. We report a case of a 78-year-old man who presented with a predominant autonomic dysfunction that led to a delay in the diagnosis. Because of the multiple morbidities associated with old age, the diagnosis of GBS presentation with autonomic dysfunction, without the typical neurological clinical pattern, may be attributed to the existing comorbidities. Therefore, clinical suspicion and close monitoring with respect to the development of autonomic dysfunction, from the first day of hospital admission, are important. The main diagnostic tests are cerebrospinal fluid analysis looking for protein\u2013cell dissociation and nerve conduction studies to confirm the neuropathy. Treatment involves general supportive care, specific immunological intervention by intravenous immunoglobulins or plasma exchange courses and neurorehabilitation. Severe cases may require intensive care admission and mechanical ventilation. More than 80% of cases will fully recover, but 10% may have residual disability, with mortality estimated at 3\u20137%. Older age, multiple morbidities, severe weakness, autonomic dysfunction and the need for mechanical ventilation are poor prognostic factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases13090306","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T12:24:25Z","timestamp":1758198265000},"page":"306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Older People\u2014A Case Report and Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Xiaomei","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Win","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiza","family":"Waseem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lidia","family":"Cilcic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nahian","family":"Kazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Abdelhafiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatric Medicine, Rotherham General Hospital, Moorgate Road, Rotherham S60 2UD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1159\/000324710","article-title":"Population Incidence of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"36","author":"Sejvar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0250-9","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in ten steps","volume":"15","author":"Leonhard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1586\/1744666X.2013.811119","article-title":"Infectious and noninfectious triggers in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Wakerley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/jns.12163","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in the elderly","volume":"21","author":"Peric","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5848","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000005848","article-title":"The clinical characteristics and short-term prognosis in elderly patients with Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, C., Bador, J., Hacquin, A., Barben, J., Putot, S., Manckoundia, P., and Putot, A. (2021). Atypical Presentation of Bacteremic Urinary Tract Infection in Older Patients: Frequency and Prognostic Impact. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11030523"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753466621995050","DOI":"10.1177\/1753466621995050","article-title":"Respiratory viral infections in the elderly","volume":"15","author":"Watson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)00339-1","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"388","author":"Willison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3277","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15955","article-title":"Hospital-diagnosed morbidities and recent surgery as risk factors for developing Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Levison","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2014.121","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis","volume":"10","author":"Walgaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2014-309056","article-title":"Seasonal variation in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: A systematic review, meta-analysis and Oxfordshire cohort study","volume":"86","author":"Webb","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1159\/000430917","article-title":"A 15-Year Nationwide Epidemiological Analysis of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome in Taiwan","volume":"44","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16365","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.16365","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: A comprehensive review","volume":"31","author":"Bellanti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"e01432","article-title":"Early Lyme disease-associated Guillain Barre Syndrome: A case report","volume":"27","author":"Shrestha","year":"2022","journal-title":"ID Cases"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watanabe, K., Takahashi, S., Kanda, A., Watanabe, T., Kakinuma, Y., Yano, S., and Kinno, R. (2025). Case Report: Therapeutic effect of efgartigimod in refractory anti-GQ1b antibody syndrome coexisting with myasthenia gravis. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1605985"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-025-05176-4","article-title":"Simultaneous development of Guillain\u2013Barre syndrome and bacterial meningitis as complications of pneumonia caused by Staphylococcus aureus: A case report","volume":"19","author":"Solodovnikova","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37744","DOI":"10.31083\/RN37744","article-title":"A Rare Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Variant with Multi-Ganglioside Reactivity: A Case of Severe Cranial Nerve Involvement","volume":"80","author":"Llaurado","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e947416","DOI":"10.12659\/AJCR.947416","article-title":"Post-COVID-19 Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome with GM1 and GD1b Antibodies: A Case Study and Literature Review","volume":"26","author":"Thiriveedi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A3896","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.2025.211.Abstracts.A3896","article-title":"Guillain Barre Syndrome in an Elderly: A Disease of a Different Breed","volume":"211","author":"Ghishan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.33545\/26648733.2025.v7.i1c.105","article-title":"Clinical profile and outcome of elders with Guillain-Barre syndrome: A Case series","volume":"7","author":"Kota","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40970","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000040970","article-title":"Anti-sulfatide antibody-positive Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 syndrome in adults following off-craniotomy for cerebellar contusion: A case report","volume":"103","author":"Min","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ito, S., Yokoi, S., Fukami, Y., Uchibori, A., and Katsuno, M. (2024). Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome with overlap between the finger drop variant and acute bulbar palsy: A case report. BMC Neurol., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-024-03899-3"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, F.Y.-S., Hou, W.-H., Lee, H.-H., Huang, Y.-C., and Siow, C.Y. (2024). Additional Rehabilitative Robot-Assisted Gait Training for Ambulation in Geriatric Individuals with Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: A Case Report. Medicina, 60.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60081209"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S30","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0001051132.58004.05","article-title":"Uncommon Presentation of Guillain-Barre Syndrome in an Elderly Male: A Case Report","volume":"103","author":"Reddy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"e69478","article-title":"Unique Clinical and Psychiatric Challenges in Elderly Patients With Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: A Case Series","volume":"16","author":"Obara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, P.-Y., Chen, X.-W., Zhang, M., Chu, W.-Z., Wu, H.-L., and Ren, C. (2023). Guillain\u2013Barre syndrome after myocardial infarction: A case report and literature review. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-023-03261-4"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.21129\/nerve.2023.00437","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Following Spinal Fusion Surgery in an Elderly Patient: A Case Report","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nerve"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidoli, C., Bruni, A.A., Beretta, S., Mazzola, P., and Bellelli, G. (2023). Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome AMSAN variant in a 90-year-old woman after COVID-19: A case report. BMC Geriatr., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-023-03833-1"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tu, W.-C., Chang, S.-T., Huang, C.-H., Cheng, Y.-Y., and Hsu, C.-S. (2022). Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome with Respiratory Failure following Spine Surgery for Incomplete Cervical Cord Injury: A Case Report and Literature Review. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58081063"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"242","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome following COVID-19 infection in an elderly patient: A case report","volume":"5","author":"Luvsannyam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-020-2357-4","article-title":"Miller Fisher syndrome with bilateral vocal cord paralysis: A case report","volume":"14","author":"Ramakrishna","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10737","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000010737","article-title":"Pulmonary adenocarcinoma associated with Guillain-Barre syndrome: A case report","volume":"97","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr-2017","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2017-222995","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome with exaggerated pleocytosis and anti-GM1 ganglioside antibodies","volume":"2018","author":"Doctor","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.4103\/ijccm.IJCCM_171_17","article-title":"First reported case of respiratory syncytial virus infection causing guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"22","author":"Helgeson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2018.33.e29","article-title":"Recurrent Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Following Urinary Tract Infection by Escherichia coli","volume":"33","author":"Jo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.56.7807","article-title":"The Sequential Ultrasonographic, Electrophysiological and MRI Findings in a Patient with the Pharyngeal-cervical-brachial Variant of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome from the Acute Phase to the Chronic Phase","volume":"56","author":"Miyagi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.8941-17","article-title":"An Adult Case of Recurrent Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome with Anti-galactocerebroside Antibodies","volume":"57","author":"Takahashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.12659\/AJCR.902668","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Presenting with Sinus Node Dysfunction and Refractory Shock","volume":"18","author":"Ha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"83","article-title":"Co-Cccurrence of Guillain-Barre Syndrome and Primary Sj\u00f6gren Syndrome in an Elderly Woman","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neurol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.51.4.1110","article-title":"The spectrum of an-tecedent infections in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: A case-control study","volume":"51","author":"Jacobs","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2012.03730.x","article-title":"Increased incidence of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome after surgery","volume":"19","author":"Gensicke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-510X(93)90324-R","article-title":"Severe axonal degeneration in acute Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: Evidence of two different mechanisms?","volume":"116","author":"Feasby","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilt054","article-title":"Animal Models of Autoimmune Neuropathy","volume":"54","author":"Soliven","year":"2014","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2013.05.001","article-title":"Glycolipid antigens and autoantibodies in autoimmune neuropathies","volume":"34","author":"Willison","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1944","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awq119","article-title":"Anti-GD1a antibodies activate complement and calpain to injure distal motor nodes of Ranvier in mice","volume":"133","author":"McGonigal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinaldi, S., Brennan, K.M., Kalna, G., Walgaard, C., van Doorn, P., Jacobs, B.C., Yu, R.K., Mansson, J.-E., Goodyear, C.S., and Willison, H.J. (2013). Antibodies to Heteromeric Glycolipid Complexes in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082337"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410440512","article-title":"The Plasma Exchange\/Sandoglobulin Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Trial Group Electrophysiological classification of guillain-barr\u00e9 syndrome: Clinical associations and outcome","volume":"44","author":"Hadden","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2021.10348","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome associated with COVID-19: A close relationship or just a coincidence?","volume":"22","author":"Stoian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hagen, K.M., and Ousman, S.S. (2021). The Neuroimmunology of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome and the Potential Role of an Aging Immune System. Front. Aging Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.613628"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.23477","article-title":"Electrophysiological subtypes and prognosis of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in North Eastern China","volume":"47","author":"Ye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.880171004","article-title":"Autonomic involvement in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome: A review","volume":"17","author":"Zochodne","year":"1994","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S241128","article-title":"Surgery and Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: A Single-Center Retrospective Study Focused on Clinical and Electrophysiological Subtypes","volume":"16","author":"Bao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pagaling, G.T., Dichoso, L.P.C., Reyes, N.G.D., and Prado, M.B. (2025). Association of dysautonomia and different risk factors in patients with Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in a tertiary hospital in the Philippines. BMC Neurol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-025-04029-3"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15208","article-title":"Influence of Sex and Age on Muscle Sympathetic Nerve Activity of Healthy Normotensive Adults","volume":"76","author":"Keir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-022-00616-1","article-title":"The role of age-associated autonomic dysfunction in inflammation and endothelial dysfunction","volume":"44","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-019-00781-w","article-title":"Dysautonomia in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: Prevalence, Clinical Spectrum, and Outcomes","volume":"32","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurocritical Care"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finsterer, J. (2022). Triggers of Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: Campylobacter jejuni Predominates. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232214222"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2021.10616","article-title":"High-dose intravenous immunoglobulins as a therapeutic option in critical illness polyneuropathy accompanying SARS-CoV-2 infection: A case-based review of the literature","volume":"22","author":"Stoian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"138","article-title":"Comparison of electrophysiological findings in axonal and demyelinating Guillain-Barre syndrome","volume":"13","author":"Yadegari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1590\/S0004-282X2005000500010","article-title":"Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome in the elderly: Clinical, electrophysiological, therapeutic and outcome features","volume":"63","author":"Garibaldi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arq. Neuro-Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Han, H.J., Shin, H.Y., and Kim, S.W. (2022). Old age and multiple comorbidity are associated with delayed diagnosis of Guillain\u2013Barre syndrome. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14184-z"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"81","article-title":"Assessment of Autonomic Dysfunction in Childhood Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome","volume":"5","author":"Samadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Thorac. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s10286-018-0542-y","article-title":"Autonomic involvement in Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 syndrome: An update","volume":"29","author":"Zaeem","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Auton. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3329\/bmrcb.v48i3.63808","article-title":"Pattern of Autonomic Involvement in Adult Patients with Guillain Barre Syndrome in a Tertiary Hospital","volume":"48","author":"Jannat","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bangladesh Med. Res. Counc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, P., Feng, J., Wu, W., and Zhang, H.-L. (2021). Intensive Care and Treatment of Severe Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.608130"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"CD001798","article-title":"Plasma exchange for Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Chevret","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.31925\/farmacia.2020.3.7","article-title":"Understanding the mechanism of action of intravenous immunoglobulins: A ten-year experience in treating Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome","volume":"68","author":"Stoian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Farmacia"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ensci.2023.100468","article-title":"Plasma exchange (PE) versus intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) for the treatment of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome (GBS) in patients with severe symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Zaki","year":"2023","journal-title":"eNeurologicalSci"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-1324","article-title":"Intravenously Administered Immunoglobulin in the Treatment of Childhood Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: A Randomized Trial","volume":"116","author":"Korinthenberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awm004","article-title":"Immunotherapy for Guillain-Barre syndrome: A systematic review","volume":"130","author":"Hughes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plasma Exchange\/Sandoglobulin Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome Trial Group (1997). Randomised trial of plasma exchange, intravenous immunoglobulin, and combined treatments in Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome. Lancet, 349, 225\u2013230.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)09095-2"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lpm.2013.02.328","article-title":"Diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome (GBS)","volume":"42","year":"2013","journal-title":"Presse Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1680","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181e07d14","article-title":"Distinguishing acute-onset CIDP from fluctuating Guillain-Barre syndrome: A prospective study","volume":"74","author":"Ruts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-016-0311-5","article-title":"Tracheostomy or Not: Prediction of Prolonged Mechanical Ventilation in Guillain\u2013Barr\u00e9 Syndrome","volume":"26","author":"Walgaard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurocritical Care"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"CD001446","article-title":"Corticosteroids for Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Hughes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(78)92644-2","article-title":"Controlled trial of prednisolone in acute polyneuropathy","volume":"312","author":"Hughes","year":"1978","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2011-301882","article-title":"Outcome and its predictors in GuillainBarre syndrome","volume":"83","author":"Rajabally","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182904fcc","article-title":"Mortality in Guillain-Barre syndrome","volume":"80","author":"Bunschoten","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2017.08.048","article-title":"Guillain Barre Syndrome in the elderly: Experience from a tertiary-care hospital in India","volume":"46","author":"Nagappa","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1177\/19418744211002676","article-title":"Prognostic Factors in Elderly Patients With Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: Does Age Matter?","volume":"11","author":"Arauz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurohospitalist"}],"container-title":["Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/13\/9\/306\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:44Z","timestamp":1760035664000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/13\/9\/306"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["diseases13090306"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diseases13090306","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-9721"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-9721","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]}}}