{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T18:13:47Z","timestamp":1793384027405,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764288000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Sepsis-associated liver injury (SALI) is a critical and often early complication of sepsis, defined by distinct hyper-inflammatory and immunosuppressive phases that shape patient phenotypes. Methods: Characterizing these phases establishes a foundation for immunomodulation strategies tailored to individual immune responses, as discussed subsequently. Results: The initial inflammatory response activates pathways such as NF-\u03baB and the NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to a cytokine storm that damages hepatocytes and is frequently associated with higher SOFA scores and a higher risk of 28-day mortality. Kupffer cells and infiltrating neutrophils exacerbate hepatic injury by releasing proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, thereby causing cellular damage and prolonging ICU stays. During the subsequent immunosuppressive phase, impaired infection control and tissue repair can result in recurrent hospital-acquired infections and a poorer prognosis. Concurrently, hepatocytes undergo significant metabolic disturbances, notably impaired fatty acid oxidation due to downregulation of transcription factors such as PPAR\u03b1 and HNF4\u03b1. This metabolic alteration corresponds with worsening liver function tests, which may reflect the severity of liver failure in clinical practice. Mitochondrial dysfunction, driven by oxidative stress and defective autophagic quality control, impairs cellular energy production and induces hepatocyte death, which is closely linked to declining liver function and increased mortality. The gut-liver axis plays a central role in SALI pathogenesis, as sepsis-induced gut dysbiosis and increased intestinal permeability allow bacterial products, including lipopolysaccharides, to enter the portal circulation and further inflame the liver. This process is associated with sepsis-related liver failure and greater reliance on vasopressor support. Protective microbial metabolites, such as indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), decrease significantly during sepsis, removing key anti-inflammatory signals and potentially prolonging recovery. Clinically, SALI most commonly presents as septic cholestasis with elevated bilirubin and mild transaminase changes, although conventional liver function tests are insufficiently sensitive for early detection. Novel biomarkers, including protein panels and non-coding RNAs, as well as dynamic liver function tests such as LiMAx (currently in phase II diagnostics) and ICG-PDR, offer promise for improved diagnosis and prognostication. Specifying the developmental stage of these biomarkers, such as identifying LiMAx as phase II, informs investment priorities and translational readiness. Current management is primarily supportive, emphasizing infection control and organ support. Investigational therapies include immunomodulation tailored to immune phenotypes, metabolic and mitochondrial-targeted agents such as pemafibrate and dichloroacetate, and interventions to restore gut microbiota balance, including probiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation. However, translational challenges remain due to limitations of animal models and patient heterogeneity. Conclusion: Future research should focus on developing representative models, validating biomarkers, and conducting clinical trials to enable personalized therapies that modulate inflammation, restore metabolism, and repair the gut-liver axis, with the goal of improving outcomes in SALI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases13120388","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T11:29:30Z","timestamp":1764761370000},"page":"388","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Sepsis and the Liver"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Eleni V.","family":"Geladari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Internal Medicine & Liver Unit, \u201cEvangelismos\u201d General Hospital, 45-47 Ipsilantou Str, 106 76 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia-Amalia C.","family":"Kalergi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Internal Medicine & Liver Unit, \u201cEvangelismos\u201d General Hospital, 45-47 Ipsilantou Str, 106 76 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Apostolos A.","family":"Evangelopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 115 27 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasileios A.","family":"Sevastianos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Internal Medicine & Liver Unit, \u201cEvangelismos\u201d General Hospital, 45-47 Ipsilantou Str, 106 76 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.4166\/kjg.2020.75.4.182","article-title":"Liver Dysfunction in Sepsis","volume":"75","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean J. 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