{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T12:13:41Z","timestamp":1792152821627,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2R15HL143545-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2R15HL143545-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Mycobacterial infections and autoimmune diseases affect many worldwide, and growing evidence suggests that there is a bidirectional relationship. This review examines mechanisms by which various autoimmune diseases predispose patients to mycobacterial infections, and vice versa. Methods: We conducted a PubMed\/MEDLINE search using the keywords \u201cmycobacterium\u201d and the names of the autoimmune conditions to identify relevant papers. Results: Rheumatoid arthritis therapies, especially TNF-\u03b1 inhibitors, raise tuberculosis (TB) and non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) risk. Type 1 diabetes features impaired cell-mediated immunity and macrophage dysfunction, with evidence for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) mimicry involving HSP65\u2013GAD65. In systemic lupus erythematosus, immune dysregulation plus corticosteroids and cytotoxins elevates TB and NTM risk, amplified in endemic settings. In multiple sclerosis, heightened TLR2\/4\/9 signaling agents that inhibit pyrimidine synthesis may increase IL-10 and reduce antimycobacterial immunity. Crohn\u2019s disease shows genetic susceptibility (e.g., NOD2 variants) and MAP detection, supporting impaired clearance of intracellular mycobacteria. Conclusions: Overall, evidence supports a bidirectional relationship: mycobacterial antigens can initiate or amplify autoimmunity via molecular mimicry and chronic stimulation, while autoimmune biology and iatrogenic immunosuppression increase susceptibility to infection. Implications include latent TB screening before immunosuppression, attention to local epidemiology, and vigilance for NTM. Research priorities include prospective cohorts, mechanistic studies of mimicry and NOD2\u2013TLR pathways, safety registries, and trials of screening and prophylaxis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases14030099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T17:16:03Z","timestamp":1773076563000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Autoimmune Diseases and Mycobacterial Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Abraham","family":"Chorbajian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5651-6282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ira","family":"Glassman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akhila","family":"Swarna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manvita","family":"Mareboina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Penn State  College of Medicine,  Hershey, PA 17033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Po-En","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jammal","family":"Abu-Khazneh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8336-759X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiayan","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Surbi","family":"Dayal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0383-2200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kian","family":"Yazdan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bianca","family":"Urness","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2586-1160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishwanath","family":"Venketaraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.14.0120","article-title":"The epidemiologic relationship between tuberculosis and non-tuberculous mycobacterial disease: A systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Brode","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. 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