{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T11:08:17Z","timestamp":1781089697581,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diseases"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Photonic imaging technologies have profoundly transformed neuro-ophthalmic diagnostics by enabling non-invasive visualization of neurodegenerative processes at the retinal level. This review examines how advanced light-based modalities provide unprecedented insights into the structural, physiologic, and biologic relationships between the eye and brain in conditions such as optic neuritis, multiple sclerosis, and glaucoma. Optical coherence tomography has emerged as an essential tool for quantifying thinning of the retinal nerve fiber layer and ganglion cell layer, serving as reliable biomarkers of axonal loss and disease progression across multiple sclerosis subtypes and optic neuropathies. Detection of apoptosing retinal cells imaging enables real-time visualization of retinal ganglion cell apoptosis preceding irreversible structural damage, offering a critical window for early intervention in various neurodegenerative conditions, in particular, glaucoma. Two-photon microscopy with adaptive optics enables subcellular-resolution imaging of retinal neurons, microvascular dynamics, and inflammatory processes in vivo, facilitating the characterization of neurodegenerative mechanisms at unprecedented spatial scales and redefining neuro-ophthalmology by positioning the retina as an accessible extension of the central nervous system. This review critically examines how established and investigational photonic imaging modalities may support earlier disease detection, longitudinal monitoring, and biomarker development in neuro-ophthalmic and neurodegenerative disorders, with potential implications for more timely and targeted management strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases14060207","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T09:25:17Z","timestamp":1781083517000},"page":"207","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Eye and the Brain: Photonic Devices in Neuro-Ophthalmology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Avitabile","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advance Diagnostic (BIND) Department, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0999-5545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Zeppieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34129 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7556-6952","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludovica","family":"Cannizzaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advance Diagnostic (BIND) Department, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0059-5253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Gagliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eye Clinic, Catania University, Policlinico G. Rodolico, 95121 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Francesca","family":"Cordeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG) Unit, Imperial College, 153-173 Marylebone Rd, London NW1 5QH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7938-876X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiana","family":"D\u2019Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG) Unit, Imperial College, 153-173 Marylebone Rd, London NW1 5QH, UK"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, Piazza dell\u2019Universit\u00e0, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6807-9455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Cappellani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, Piazza dell\u2019Universit\u00e0, 94100 Enna, Italy"},{"name":"Mediterranean Foundation \u201cG.B. Morgagni\u201d, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2726-698X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Vadal\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advance Diagnostic (BIND) Department, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincenza Maria Elena","family":"Bonfiglio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advance Diagnostic (BIND) Department, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ptito, M., Bleau, M., and Bouskila, J. (2021). The Retina: A Window into the Brain. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10123269"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2020.100938","article-title":"Past, present and future role of retinal imaging in neurodegenerative disease","volume":"83","author":"Kashani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"071412","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.7.071412","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography today: Speed, contrast, and multimodality","volume":"19","author":"Drexler","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13365","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.013365","article-title":"MEMS-based handheld scanning probe with pre-shaped input signals for distortion-free images in Gabor-domain optical coherence microscopy","volume":"24","author":"Cogliati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1957169","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography","volume":"254","author":"Huang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30278-8","article-title":"Retinal layer segmentation in multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Petzold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4710","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.20.004710","article-title":"Split-spectrum amplitude-decorrelation angiography with optical coherence tomography","volume":"20","author":"Jia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2884","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.14.002884","article-title":"Supernormal vision and high-resolution retinal imaging through adaptive optics","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2005.10.040","article-title":"Relation of visual function to retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in multiple sclerosis","volume":"113","author":"Fisher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20851","article-title":"Quantifying axonal loss after optic neuritis with optical coherence tomography","volume":"59","author":"Costello","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.22005","article-title":"Longitudinal study of vision and retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in multiple sclerosis","volume":"67","author":"Talman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1803","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200970","article-title":"Retinal Layer Thinning After Optic Neuritis Is Associated With Future Relapse Remission in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"99","author":"Bsteh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"107","article-title":"OCT and OCT-A biomarkers in multiple sclerosis\u2014Review","volume":"67","author":"Bostan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rom. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cujba, L., Stan, C., Samoila, O., Drugan, T., Benedec Cutas, A., and Nicula, C. (2023). Identifying Optical Coherence Tomography Markers for Multiple Sclerosis Diagnosis and Management. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13122077"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.21037\/aes.2019.12.08","article-title":"Overview of optical coherence tomography in neuro-ophthalmology","volume":"5","author":"Maloca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Eye Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-022-02056-9","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography as retinal imaging biomarker of neuroinflammation\/neurodegeneration in systemic disorders in adults and children","volume":"37","author":"Vujosevic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.2147\/EB.S226319","article-title":"Ganglion Cell Complex Analysis in Glaucoma Patients: What Can It Tell Us?","volume":"12","author":"Scuderi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye Brain"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx088","article-title":"Real-time imaging of single neuronal cell apoptosis in patients with glaucoma","volume":"140","author":"Cordeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2020.1758067","article-title":"A CNN-aided method to predict glaucoma progression using DARC (Detection of Apoptosing Retinal Cells)","volume":"20","author":"Normando","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-020-0317-9","article-title":"Adaptive optics two-photon microscopy enables near-diffraction-limited and functional retinal imaging in vivo","volume":"9","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e84853","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.84853","article-title":"Retinal microvascular and neuronal pathologies probed in vivo by adaptive optical two-photon fluorescence microscopy","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2426241122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2426241122","article-title":"Transpupillary in vivo two-photon imaging reveals enhanced surveillance of retinal microglia in diabetic mice","volume":"122","author":"Sotani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaushik, V., D\u0105browski, M., Gessa, L., Kumar, N., and Fernandes, H. (2024). Two-photon excitation fluorescence in ophthalmology: Safety and improved imaging for functional diagnostics. Front. Med., 10, Erratum in Front. Med.\u00a02025, 12, 1572630. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1572630.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1293640"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e154218","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI154218","article-title":"In vivo imaging of the human eye using a 2-photon-excited fluorescence scanning laser ophthalmoscope","volume":"132","author":"Boguslawski","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16089","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-66284-7","article-title":"Retinal hyperspectral imaging in mouse models of Parkinson\u2019s disease and healthy aging","volume":"14","author":"Trlin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nimworaphan, J., Markowitz, D.M., and Sergott, R.C. (2025). Fluorescence lifetime imaging ophthalmoscopy adds the retina to cortical pathology for visual dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Neurol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1659264"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-018-0093-y","article-title":"High-resolution, in vivo multimodal photoacoustic microscopy, optical coherence tomography, and fluorescence microscopy imaging of rabbit retinal neovascularization","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2012.227","article-title":"The retina as a window to the brain\u2014From eye research to CNS disorders","volume":"9","author":"London","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-150457","article-title":"Retinal oximetry imaging in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"49","author":"Einarsdottir","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-016-1609-2","article-title":"Glaucoma: The retina and beyond","volume":"132","author":"Davis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200416","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200416","article-title":"Retinal Optical Coherence Tomography Longitudinal Measures as Prognostic Biomarkers in Multiple Sclerosis: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Ismail","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pellegrini, M., Vagge, A., Ferro Desideri, L.F., Bernabei, F., Triolo, G., Mastropasqua, R., Del Noce, C.D., Borrelli, E., Sacconi, R., and Iovino, C. (2020). Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Neurodegenerative Disorders. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061706"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liao, C., Xu, J., Chen, Y., and Ip, N.Y. (2021). Retinal Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Implications for Biomarkers. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11081215"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doustar, J., Torbati, T., Black, K.L., Koronyo, Y., and Koronyo-Hamaoui, M. (2017). Optical Coherence Tomography in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front. Neurol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00701"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabel, P., Kaluzny, J.J., Zabel, K., Kaluzna, M., Lamkowski, A., Jaworski, D., Makowski, J., Gebska-Toloczko, M., and Kucharski, R. (2021). Quantitative assessment of retinal thickness and vessel density using optical coherence tomography angiography in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and glaucoma. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248284"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220596","article-title":"Retinal Examinations Provides Early Warning of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"90","author":"Xia","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-016-0346-z","article-title":"The retina as an early biomarker of neurodegeneration in a rotenone-induced model of Parkinson\u2019s disease: Evidence for a neuroprotective effect of rosiglitazone in the eye and brain","volume":"4","author":"Normando","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tezel, G. (2021). Multifactorial Pathogenic Processes of Retinal Ganglion Cell Degeneration in Glaucoma towards Multi-Target Strategies for Broader Treatment Effects. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061372"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-9158-1-5","article-title":"Neuroimaging in the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative disease","volume":"1","author":"Stoessl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transl. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2021.100976","article-title":"Detecting retinal cell stress and apoptosis with DARC: Progression from lab to clinic","volume":"86","author":"Cordeiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caro, R., Chen, A., Mudumbai, R., Duerr, E., Chen, P.P., and Bojikian, K.D. (2025). In vivo imaging of mitochondrial function in normal, glaucoma suspect, and glaucoma eyes. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0317354"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ogla.2021.12.006","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma Characterized by Flavoprotein Fluorescence at the Optic Nerve Head","volume":"5","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Glaucoma"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1097\/IJG.0000000000000862","article-title":"The Association Between Macula and ONH Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography (OCT-A) Vessel Densities in Glaucoma, Glaucoma Suspect, and Healthy Eyes","volume":"27","author":"Manalastas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Glaucoma"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181ff9a8b","article-title":"Adaptive optics retinal imaging: Emerging clinical applications","volume":"87","author":"Godara","year":"2010","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-15936","article-title":"Adaptive optics imaging of healthy and abnormal regions of retinal nerve fiber bundles of patients with glaucoma","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"21","article-title":"Optical strategies for in vivo retinal ganglion cell imaging","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med. X"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheong, S.K., Strazzeri, J.M., Williams, D.R., and Merigan, W.H. (2018). All-optical recording and stimulation of retinal neurons in vivo in retinal degeneration mice. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194947"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02817-0","article-title":"Detection and agreement of event-based OCT and OCTA analysis for glaucoma progression","volume":"38","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4227","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-12242-1","article-title":"Non-invasive in vivo hyperspectral imaging of the retina for potential biomarker use in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Hadoux","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2015.2225","article-title":"Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography of the Peripapillary Retina in Glaucoma","volume":"133","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12257","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-91813-z","article-title":"The role of pattern electroretinograms and optical coherence tomography angiography in the diagnosis of normal-tension glaucoma","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeon, S.J., Jung, K.I., Park, C.K., and Park, H.-Y.L. (2022). Macular Blood Flow and Pattern Electroretinogram in Normal Tension Glaucoma. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11071790"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"2401","article-title":"Neuroprotection in glaucoma-electrophysiology","volume":"19","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-019-0406-2","article-title":"A pilot study of fluorescence lifetime imaging ophthalmoscopy in preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"33","author":"Sadda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2024.123061","article-title":"Distinct retinal reflectance spectra from retinal hyperspectral imaging in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"461","author":"Ueda","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."}],"container-title":["Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/14\/6\/207\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T10:24:26Z","timestamp":1781087066000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-9721\/14\/6\/207"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["diseases14060207"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/diseases14060207","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-9721"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-9721","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]}}}