{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:39:04Z","timestamp":1787027944510,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University","award":["756-165-1441"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["756-165-1441"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Dentistry Journal"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Smoking has a detrimental effect on the periodontal condition. Smoking intensity has recently been considered as a criterion for grading periodontitis cases. However, the influence of smoking intensity on the subgingival microbial community has not been evaluated in depth. This cross-sectional analytical study aims to assess the differences in the subgingival microbiome in adult patients with chronic periodontitis and different smoking habits (heavy smokers versus moderate smokers versus non-smokers). Methods: Sixty patients diagnosed with chronic periodontitis were grouped according to their daily smoking intensity as follows: group I (smoke \u2265 10 cigarettes\/day), group II (smoke &lt; 10 cigarettes\/day), and non-smokers (group III). For each patient, samples from subgingival plaque were harvested from the deepest three periodontal pockets, and their 16S rRNA was sequenced using the S5 Ion Torrent platform. Sequences were clustered in taxonomic units, and the microbial diversity was expressed using the Shannon index or Simpson index, while the abundance of the microbial species was expressed using the Chao index. Results: Bacterial diversity was lowest in the heavy smoker group (group I) and highest in non-smokers (group III). Veillonella, Streptococcus, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, and Dialister were found to have different prevalences in the three study groups. Campylobacter decreased and Fusobacterium increased as a function of the number of cigarettes smoked per day. The moderate smoker group showed a higher abundance of Spirochaetes. At the species level, the heavy smoker group (group I) showed a higher abundance of Fusobacterium compared to the other two groups. Conclusions: Greater smoking intensity has been associated with higher Fusobacterium abundance, together with decreased diversity of the subgingival microbiome, establishing a more stable putative subgingival bacterial environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/dj14010010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T10:57:18Z","timestamp":1766487438000},"page":"10","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effect of Smoking on Subgingival Microbiome in Chronic Periodontitis: A 16S rRNA Sequencing Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7304-5021","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jazia A.","family":"Alblowi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Periodontology Department, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2017.73","article-title":"A tale of two risks: Smoking, diabetes and the subgingival microbiome","volume":"11","author":"Ganesan","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S173","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.17-0721","article-title":"Periodontitis: Consensus report of workgroup 2 of the 2017 World Workshop on the Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions","volume":"89","author":"Papapanou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, B., Faller, L.L., Klitgord, N., Mazumdar, V., Ghodsi, M., Sommer, D.D., Gibbons, T.R., Treangen, T.J., Chang, Y.-C., and Li, S. (2012). Deep sequencing of the oral microbiome reveals signatures of periodontal disease. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037919"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2011.191","article-title":"Distinct and complex bacterial profiles in human periodontitis and health revealed by 16S pyrosequencing","volume":"6","author":"Griffen","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S219","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.12951","article-title":"Periodontal manifestations of systemic diseases and developmental and acquired conditions: Consensus report of workgroup 3 of the 2017 World Workshop on the Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions","volume":"45","author":"Jepsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S159","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.18-0006","article-title":"Staging and grading of periodontitis: Framework and proposal of a new classification and case definition","volume":"89","author":"Tonetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001063","article-title":"Polymicrobial oral biofilm models: Simplifying the complex","volume":"68","author":"Brown","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20205","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20205","article-title":"Microbial profiles at baseline and not the use of antibiotics determine the clinical outcome of the treatment of chronic periodontitis","volume":"6","author":"Bizzarro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5604\/17331331.1234988","article-title":"Application of Metagenomic Analyses in Dentistry as a Novel Strategy Enabling Complex Insight into Microbial Diversity of the Oral Cavity","volume":"66","author":"Burczynska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pol. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [2nd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gA04ngAACAAJ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034510377203","article-title":"Subgingival microbial profiles of smokers with periodontitis","volume":"89","author":"Shchipkova","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2011.139","article-title":"An improved Greengenes taxonomy with explicit ranks for ecological and evolutionary analyses of bacteria and archaea","volume":"6","author":"McDonald","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"241","article-title":"Power study of ANOVA versus Kruskal\u2013Wallis test","volume":"15","author":"Hecke","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stat. Manag. Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czt055","article-title":"Tobacco in the Arab world: Old and new epidemics amidst policy paralysis","volume":"29","author":"Maziak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051x.2001.028004283.x","article-title":"Relationship of cigarette smoking to attachment level profiles","volume":"28","author":"Haffajee","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2014.114","article-title":"The subgingival microbiome of clinically healthy current and never smokers","volume":"9","author":"Mason","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4730","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.05371-11","article-title":"Tobacco smoking affects bacterial acquisition and colonization in oral biofilms","volume":"79","author":"Kumar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-019-1971-7","article-title":"Smoking and microbiome in oral, airway, gut and some systemic diseases","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2017.6269","article-title":"Subgingival dysbiosis in smoker and non-smoker patients with chronic periodontitis","volume":"15","author":"Coretti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4832912","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/4832912","article-title":"16S rRNA Long-Read Sequencing of the Granulation Tissue from Nonsmokers and Smokers-Severe Chronic Periodontitis Patients","volume":"2018","author":"Chowdhry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdsr.2019.03.002","article-title":"Smoking and periodontal microorganisms","volume":"55","author":"Hanioka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Jpn. Dent. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.12087","article-title":"Subgingival microbiome in smokers and non-smokers in periodontitis: An exploratory study using traditional targeted techniques and a next-generation sequencing","volume":"40","author":"Bizzarro","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051x.2001.028003212.x","article-title":"Smoking and subgingival microflora in periodontal disease","volume":"28","author":"Linder","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2005.00644.x","article-title":"Clinical and microbiological effect of scaling and root planing in smoker and non-smoker chronic and aggressive periodontitis patients","volume":"32","author":"Darby","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051X.2003.00080.x","article-title":"Effect of smoking and periodontal treatment on the subgingival microflora","volume":"30","author":"Varoufaki","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2006.060026","article-title":"Periodontal status in smokers and never-smokers: Clinical findings and real-time polymerase chain reaction quantification of putative periodontal pathogens","volume":"77","author":"Gomes","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051x.2001.028005377.x","article-title":"Relationship of cigarette smoking to the subgingival microbiota","volume":"28","author":"Haffajee","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2001.72.5.666","article-title":"Smoking affects the subgingival microflora in periodontitis","volume":"72","author":"Winkel","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Parikh, C., Bolchacova, E., and Jackson, S. (2023, July 01). Rapid 16S Next Generation Sequencing for Bacterial Identification in Polymicrobial Samples. Available online: https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ThermoFisher\/c-parikh-asm2015posterfinal."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0226-6","article-title":"The effect of cigarette smoking on the oral and nasal microbiota","volume":"5","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/omi.12086","article-title":"Subgingival microbiome in smokers and non-smokers in Korean chronic periodontitis patients","volume":"30","author":"Moon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Oral. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-148-2-467","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum supports the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis in oxygenated and carbon-dioxide-depleted environments","volume":"148","author":"Zilm","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basic, A., and Dahl\u00e9n, G. (2023). Microbial Metabolites in the Pathogenesis of Periodontal Diseases: A Narrative Review. Front. Oral Health, 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/froh.2023.1210200"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y. (2022). More than just a periodontal pathogen\u2014The research progress on Fusobacterium nucleatum. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.815318"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1455","DOI":"10.14393\/BJ-v34n5a2018-41482","article-title":"Campylobacter species in chilean patients with chronic periodontitis","volume":"34","author":"Montanares","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosci. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/omi.12274","article-title":"Periodontal pathogens and clinical parameters in chronic periodontitis","volume":"35","author":"Boyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Oral. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051X.2002.290815.x","article-title":"Effects of smoking on periodontal tissues","volume":"29","author":"Calsina","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., Zhou, X., Cheng, L., and Li, M. (2020). The Impact of Smoking on Subgingival Microflora: From Periodontal Health to Disease. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00066"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"42","article-title":"Smoking and periodontal microorganisms","volume":"46","author":"Hanioka","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/nty147","article-title":"Impact of smoking cessation on periodontitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal observational and interventional studies","volume":"21","author":"Leite","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-008-0030-5","article-title":"A biological treasure metagenome: Pave a way for big science","volume":"48","author":"Park","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nath, S., Pulikkotil, S.J., Weyrich, L., Zilm, P., Kapellas, K., and Jamieson, L. (2022). Effect of Periodontal Interventions on Characteristics of the Periodontal Microbial Profile: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10081582"}],"container-title":["Dentistry Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-6767\/14\/1\/10\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T11:24:17Z","timestamp":1766489057000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-6767\/14\/1\/10"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["dj14010010"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/dj14010010","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-6767"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-6767","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]}}}