{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T05:02:11Z","timestamp":1790053331895,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62272208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62272208"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62572221"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62572221"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["62272208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62272208"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62572221"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62572221"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Quantum computation, with tools including Grover\u2019s algorithm, quantum walks, and quantum teleportation, plays an important role in quantum signature designs. Although such designs offer signature functionality, they sometimes come at the cost of security. This paper first reviews a Grover-based scheme and shows how man-in-the-middle attacks enable complete key recovery, Alice\u2019s disavowal, and Bob\u2019s forgery. We then propose an arbitrated quantum signature scheme based on quantum teleportation and a strengthened quantum one-time pad. The scheme is designed for quantum messages with known classical descriptions, not for arbitrary unknown quantum states. The security of the proposed scheme is analyzed through a formal adversarial model for unforgeability and non-repudiation, and its resilience against replay, intercept-and-resend, man-in-the-middle, entanglement, and collective or coherent attacks is examined. Numerical simulations and an asymptotic resource analysis further illustrate the practicality of the scheme.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e28091030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T08:03:47Z","timestamp":1789977827000},"page":"1030","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["On a Grover-Based Quantum Signature Scheme and a Teleportation-Based Design"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5520-667X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoliang","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Software, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang 471934, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5122-0963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Songyao","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Software, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang 471934, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Xiangfu","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Computational Science, Wuyi University, Jiangmen 529020, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yumei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Conservatory of Music, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang 471934, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"89","article-title":"Arbitrated Quantum Signature Scheme with Quantum Walks on Regular Graphs","volume":"42","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electron. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240316","DOI":"10.1360\/SSPMA-2023-0361","article-title":"Arbitrated Quantum (t,n) Threshold Group Signature Scheme Based on Multi-coin Quantum Walk","volume":"54","author":"Shang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Sin. Phys. Mech. Astron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-44030-8","article-title":"Privacy-preserving Quantum Sealed-bid Auction Based on Grover\u2019s Search Algorithm","volume":"9","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015103","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-8949\/90\/1\/015103","article-title":"Quantum Signature Scheme Based on a Quantum Search Algorithm","volume":"90","author":"Yoon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Grover, L.K. (1996, January 22\u201324). A Fast Quantum Mechanical Algorithm for Database Search. Proceedings of the 28th Annual ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computing, Philadelphia, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3810","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30860-0","article-title":"Quantum Asymmetric Key Crypto Scheme Using Grover Iteration","volume":"13","author":"Yoon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, D., Li, Z., Yu, J., and Han, Z. (2022). A Verifiable Arbitrated Quantum Signature Scheme Based on Controlled Quantum Teleportation. Entropy, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/e24010111"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042312","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.65.042312","article-title":"Arbitrated-Quantum Signature Scheme","volume":"65","author":"Zeng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054307","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.79.054307","article-title":"Arbitrated Quantum Signature Scheme Using Bell States","volume":"79","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2025.132315","article-title":"A Simplified Arbitrated Quantum Signature Protocol Without Entanglement: Design Premise and Security Analysis","volume":"595","author":"Pang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042325","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.82.042325","article-title":"Security Analysis and Improvements of Arbitrated Quantum Signature Schemes","volume":"82","author":"Zou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1140\/epjd\/e2010-10157-4","article-title":"Arbitrated Quantum Signature with an Untrusted Arbitrator","volume":"61","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. D"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1007\/s11128-013-0538-4","article-title":"Efficient Arbitrated Quantum Signature and Its Proof of Security","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quantum Inf. Process."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062330","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.84.062330","article-title":"Security Problem on Arbitrated Quantum Signature Schemes","volume":"84","author":"Choi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1007\/s11128-013-0554-4","article-title":"Improving the Security of Arbitrated Quantum Signature Against the Forgery Attack","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quantum Inf. Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025101","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-8949\/90\/2\/025101","article-title":"Quantum Messages with Signatures Forgeable in Arbitrated Quantum Signature Schemes","volume":"90","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042317","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.67.042317","article-title":"Optimal Encryption of Quantum Bits","volume":"67","author":"Boykin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"14","article-title":"Quantum Vernam Cipher","volume":"2","author":"Leung","year":"2002","journal-title":"Quantum Inf. Comput."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Bennett, C.H., and Brassard, G. (1984, January 9\u201312). Quantum Cryptography: Public Key Distribution and Coin Tossing. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing, Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.67.661","article-title":"Quantum Cryptography Based on Bell\u2019s Theorem","volume":"67","author":"Ekert","year":"1991","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3121","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.68.3121","article-title":"Quantum Cryptography Using Any Two Nonorthogonal States","volume":"68","author":"Bennett","year":"1992","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1145\/382780.382781","article-title":"Unconditional Security in Quantum Cryptography","volume":"48","author":"Mayers","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. ACM"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6957","DOI":"10.1088\/0305-4470\/34\/35\/321","article-title":"A Simple Proof of the Unconditional Security of Quantum Key Distribution","volume":"34","author":"Lo","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Phys. A Math. Gen."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0375-9601(00)00666-6","article-title":"Teleportation of a Two-Particle Entangled State via Entanglement Swapping","volume":"276","author":"Lu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. A"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050","DOI":"10.1126\/science.283.5410.2050","article-title":"Unconditional Security of Quantum Key Distribution over Arbitrarily Long Distances","volume":"283","author":"Lo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.441","article-title":"Simple Proof of Security of the BB84 Quantum Key Distribution Protocol","volume":"85","author":"Shor","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052315","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.87.052315","article-title":"Quantum Repeaters and Quantum Key Distribution: Analysis of Secret-Key Rates","volume":"87","author":"Abruzzo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Barnum, H., Cr\u00e9peau, C., Gottesman, D., Smith, A., and Tapp, A. (2002, January 16\u201319). Authentication of Quantum Messages. Proceedings of the 43rd IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (FOCS), Vancouver, BC, Canada."}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/28\/9\/1030\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T04:14:19Z","timestamp":1790050459000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/28\/9\/1030"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["e28091030"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e28091030","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-4300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]}}}