{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,14]],"date-time":"2026-06-14T22:16:06Z","timestamp":1781475366201,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["EJIHPE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inner strength is increasingly recognized as a protective factor in mental health, but its structure and dynamics remain underexplored, particularly in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms. This study applied network analysis to investigate the complex relationships among inner strengths in individuals exhibiting BPD symptoms, aiming to identify core and bridging strengths that could inform targeted interventions. The sample comprised 346 Thai university students (25.4% males, 74.6% females; mean age = 21.60 \u00b1 2.24 years) who screened positive for BPD symptoms using the Screening Instrument for Borderline Personality Disorder. Network analysis revealed that inner strengths formed an interconnected system with both core and peripheral features. The strongest association was observed between generosity and loving-kindness. A cognitive behavioral cluster comprising perseverance, wisdom, and determination also emerged. Centrality analysis identified loving-kindness as the most influential node in terms of direct connections, while equanimity exhibited the highest bridge centrality. Generosity and determination demonstrated the greatest expected influence. A negative link between truthfulness and equanimity highlighted a potential conflict between absolute honesty and inner balance in this population. Notably, exploratory analyses by gender revealed distinct network structures. In males, determination, wisdom, and precept emerged as central strengths; however, results for males should be interpreted with caution due to sample size. In females, perseverance, loving-kindness, and meditation were the most influential. These gender-specific patterns suggest that targeting different core strengths according to gender may enhance the effectiveness of interventions for individuals with BPD symptoms. Overall, the findings suggest that fostering specific inner strengths, particularly equanimity, loving-kindness, and those identified as central for each gender, may enhance psychological resilience and inform more tailored intervention strategies for BPD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ejihpe16020019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T09:48:08Z","timestamp":1770025688000},"page":"19","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Network Analysis of Inner Strength Among University Students with Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5127-0524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuting","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Program, Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary School (MidS), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"DeMaranville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Program, Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary School (MidS), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanyarat","family":"Khattiya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health and Psychiatry Services, Maesai Hospital, Chiang Rai 57130, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7669-3147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelvin C. Y.","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8365-2474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nahathai","family":"Wongpakaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Program, Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary School (MidS), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9062-3468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tinakon","family":"Wongpakaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Program, Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary School (MidS), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1163\/15736121-12341329","article-title":"Buddhist generosity: Its conceptual model and empirical tests","volume":"38","author":"Ariyabuddhiphongs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Archive for the Psychology of Religion"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.5.469","article-title":"Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties","volume":"55","author":"Arnett","year":"2000","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bateman, A., and Fonagy, P. (2006). Mentalization-based treatment for borderline personality disorder: A practical guide, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780198570905.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1177\/070674371506000702","article-title":"The lifetime course of borderline personality disorder","volume":"60","author":"Biskin","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185608","article-title":"Network analysis: An integrative approach to the structure of psychopathology","volume":"9","author":"Borsboom","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annual Review of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-021-00055-w","article-title":"Network analysis of multivariate data in psychological science","volume":"1","author":"Borsboom","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Methods Primers"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2496(75)90028-0","article-title":"An algorithm for clustering relational data with applications to social network analysis and comparison with multidimensional scaling","volume":"12","author":"Breiger","year":"1975","journal-title":"Journal of Mathematical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Buddhaghosa, B. (2020). The path of purification: Visuddhimagga, Pariyatti."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.1534","article-title":"Screening for borderline personality pathology on college campuses","volume":"16","author":"Cano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personality and Mental Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro, D., Ferreira, F., de Castro, I., Rodrigues, A. R., Correia, M., Ribeiro, J., and Ferreira, T. B. (2019). The differential role of central and bridge symptoms in deactivating psychopathological networks. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02448"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.5","article-title":"Positive psychology","volume":"55","author":"Csikszentmihalyi","year":"2000","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Y., Du, T., Zeng, X., and Wang, W. (2025). Kindness is lesser preferable than happiness: Investigating interest in different effects of the loving-kindness and compassion meditations. BMC Psychology, 13, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-025-02771-4"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.31940\/soshum.v8i2.991","article-title":"An aspect of Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhist ethics: The culture of generosity (d\u0101na)","volume":"8","author":"Dorjey","year":"2018","journal-title":"SOSHUM: Jurnal Sosial Dan Humaniora"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.09.001","article-title":"Personality disorders: Community prevalence and socio-demographic correlates","volume":"21","author":"Eaton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0862-1","article-title":"Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper","volume":"50","author":"Epskamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14339","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14339","article-title":"Community detection in signed networks: The role of negative ties in different scales","volume":"5","author":"Esmailian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1177\/0033294121996991","article-title":"The mediating effects of self-esteem on anxiety and emotion regulation","volume":"125","author":"Fernandes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychological Reports"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691617705892","article-title":"Moving forward: Challenges and directions for psychopathological network theory and methodology","volume":"12","author":"Fried","year":"2017","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.1636","article-title":"Levels of grit in patients with borderline personality disorder: Description and prediction","volume":"18","author":"Glass","year":"2024","journal-title":"Personality and Mental Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.21307\/sjcapp-2021-020","article-title":"Interpersonal trust in adolescents with psychiatric disorders and borderline pathology","volume":"9","author":"Graves","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1080\/21642850.2018.1521283","article-title":"Network analysis: A brief overview and tutorial","volume":"6","author":"Hevey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, N., Sakulsriprasert, C., Wongpakaran, N., Suradom, C., and O\u2019 Donnell, R. (2022). Borderline personality disorder symptoms and its clinical correlates among Chinese university students: A cross-sectional study. Healthcare, 10, (9).","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10091751"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s12646-021-00634-7","article-title":"Various pathways for cultivation of equanimity: An exploratory study","volume":"67","author":"Jijina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychological Studies"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2017.11.005","article-title":"Effects of brief mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation inductions on emotional and behavioral responses to social rejection among individuals with high borderline personality traits","volume":"100","author":"Keng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khattiya, K., Wongpakaran, T., and Wongpakaran, N. (2026). Association between pet ownership and mental health in university students with borderline personality disorder symptoms. BMC Psychiatry.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-026-07805-8"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"e85070","article-title":"A systematic review of risk and protective factors of borderline personality disorder","volume":"17","author":"Kouklidou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s12671-019-01257-w","article-title":"Effects of a brief mindfulness curriculum on self-reported executive functioning and emotion regulation in Hong Kong adolescents","volume":"11","author":"Lam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mindfulness"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1080\/00221325.2024.2413490","article-title":"The impact of helicopter parenting on emerging adults in higher education: A scoping review of psychological adjustment in university students","volume":"186","author":"Ching","year":"2025","journal-title":"The Journal of Genetic Psychology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.0589","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder: A review","volume":"329","author":"Leichsenring","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61422-5","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder","volume":"377","author":"Leichsenring","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Linehan, M. M. (1993). Skills training manual for treating borderline personality disorder, The Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lohanan, T., Leesawat, T., Wongpakaran, T., Wongpakaran, N., Karawekpanyawong, N., Oon-Arom, A., and Kuntawong, P. (2020). Development and validation of a screening instrument for borderline personality disorder (SI-Bord) for use among university students. BMC Psychiatry, 20, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-02807-6"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2009.05.020","article-title":"Inner strength\u2014A theoretical analysis of salutogenic concepts","volume":"47","author":"Lundman","year":"2010","journal-title":"International Journal of Nursing Studies"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000117","article-title":"The neurobiology of mentalizing","volume":"6","author":"Luyten","year":"2015","journal-title":"Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.20243","article-title":"Mechanisms of change in dialectical behavior therapy: Theoretical and empirical observations","volume":"62","author":"Lynch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.56.3.227","article-title":"Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development","volume":"56","author":"Masten","year":"2001","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-081219-092850","article-title":"Network analysis of psychopathology: Controversies and challenges","volume":"17","author":"McNally","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annual Review of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meaney, R., Hasking, P., and Reupert, A. (2016). Prevalence of borderline personality disorder in university samples: Systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. PLoS ONE, 11, (5).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155439"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G. C., and Guarino, A. (2013). Performing data analysis using IBM SPSS, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.109.4.733","article-title":"Borderline personality: Traits and disorder","volume":"109","author":"Morey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1080\/07448481.2021.1909050","article-title":"Development and testing of the university student resilience scale","volume":"71","author":"Mueller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of American College Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1076\/edre.7.4.353.8937","article-title":"A review of methods for missing data","volume":"7","author":"Pigott","year":"2001","journal-title":"Educational Research and Evaluation"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richetin, J., Preti, E., Costantini, G., and De Panfilis, C. (2017). The centrality of affective instability and identity in Borderline Personality Disorder: Evidence from network analysis. PLoS ONE, 12, (10).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186695"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000181","article-title":"Identifying highly influential nodes in the complicated grief network","volume":"125","author":"Robinaugh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.06.067","article-title":"Protective factors in borderline personality disorder: A multi-study analysis of conscientiousness, distress tolerance, and self-compassion","volume":"338","author":"Southward","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Affective Disorders"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sripunya, P., Wongpakaran, T., and Wongpakaran, N. (2024). The relationship between feelings of emptiness and self-harm among Thai patients exhibiting borderline personality disorder symptoms: The mediating role of the inner strengths. Medicina, 60, (11).","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60111776"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Thavaro, V. (1982). Handbook of meditation practice, Chuanpim. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0001215","article-title":"Introduction to the special issue: Resilience and perseverance for human flourishing","volume":"14","author":"Tsai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-019-1040-1","article-title":"A life span perspective on borderline personality disorder","volume":"21","author":"Videler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Current Psychiatry Reports"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wongpakaran, N., Oon-Arom, A., Karawekpanyawong, N., Lohanan, T., Leesawat, T., and Wongpakaran, T. (2021). Borderline personality symptoms: What not to be overlooked when approaching suicidal ideation among university students. Healthcare, 9, (10).","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare9101399"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"263","article-title":"Development and validation of the (inner) strength-based inventory","volume":"23","author":"Wongpakaran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mental Health, Religion & Culture"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/16\/2\/19\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T10:21:40Z","timestamp":1770027700000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/16\/2\/19"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ejihpe16020019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ejihpe16020019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2254-9625"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2254-9625","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]}}}