{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T15:50:15Z","timestamp":1782316215640,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692230400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Norwegian University of Science and Technology","award":["81148050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81148050"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to an extensive usage of heavy machinery, the construction sector is criticized as one of the major CO2 emitters. To address climate concerns, mitigating these greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is important. This study aimed to strategize for \u201czero emission construction\u201d by assessing the life cycle environmental impacts of diesel, electric, and hybrid construction machinery. By applying life cycle assessment (LCA) principles with adherence to ISO 14040\/44 methodologies, this study scrutinizes the environmental repercussions of a standard excavator over 9200 effective operational hours, from raw material acquisition to end-of-life disposal. The results demonstrate a significant reduction in global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), and acidification potential (AP) in transitioning from diesel to hybrid and fully electric machines. A nominal increase due to this shift also occurred and impacted categories such as human carcinogenic toxicity (HT), freshwater eutrophication (EP), and marine ecotoxicity (ME); however, a more significant upsurge was noted in terrestrial ecotoxicity (TE) due to battery production. Thus, this study highlights the need for a careful management of environmental trade-offs in the shift toward electrified machinery and the importance of centering on the environmental profile of the battery. Future work should focus on enhancing the environmental profile of battery production and disposal, with policy decisions encouraging holistic sustainability based on green energies in construction projects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en16166025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T10:47:02Z","timestamp":1692269222000},"page":"6025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Toward Zero Emission Construction: A Comparative Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Diesel, Hybrid, and Electric Excavators"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7080-1135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asmat Ullah","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Manufacturing and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2815 Gj\u00f8vik, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9387-7650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lizhen","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Manufacturing and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2815 Gj\u00f8vik, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sizirici, B., Fseha, Y., Cho, C.-S., Yildiz, I., and Byon, Y.-J. (2021). A review of carbon footprint reduction in construction industry, from design to operation. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14206094"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barati, K., and Shen, X. (2019, January 21\u201324). Modelling Traffic Conditions on Fuel Use and Emissions of On-Road Construction Equipment. Proceedings of the ISARC International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, Banff, AL, Canada. Available online: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/docview\/2268537821?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true.","DOI":"10.22260\/ISARC2019\/0126"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barati, K., and Shen, X. (2016, January 18\u201321). Comprehensive methodology for emission modelling of earthmoving equipment. Proceedings of the 33rd International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction and Mining (ISARC 2016), Auburn, AL, USA.","DOI":"10.22260\/ISARC2016\/0065"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"393","article-title":"Emission and cost configurations in earthmoving operations","volume":"4","author":"Kaboli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Organ. Technol. Manag. Constr. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4016038","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000484","article-title":"Fuel use and pollutant emissions taxonomy for heavy duty diesel construction equipment","volume":"33","author":"Lewis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Manag. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Aragones, M., and Serafimova, T. (2023, April 16). Zero Emission Construction Sites: The Possibilities and Barriers of Electric Construction Machinery. Bellona Europe. Available online: https:\/\/bellona.org\/publication\/zero-emission-construction-sites-the-possibilities-and-barriers-of-electric-construction-machinery."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eremeeva, A.M., Kondrasheva, N.K., Khasanov, A.F., and Oleynik, I.L. (2023). Environmentally Friendly Diesel Fuel Obtained from Vegetable Raw Materials and Hydrocarbon Crude. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16052121"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.01.034","article-title":"A review on the prospects of sustainable biodiesel production: A global scenario with an emphasis on waste-oil biodiesel utilization","volume":"72","author":"Hajjari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrova, T.A., Rudzisha, E., Alekseenko, A.V., Bech, J., and Pashkevich, M.A. (2022). Rehabilitation of disturbed lands with industrial wastewater sludge. Minerals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/min12030376"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eremeeva, A., Ilyashenko, I., and Korshunov, G. (2022). The Possibility of Application of Bioadditives to Diesel Fuel at Mining Enterprises. Personalii. Spmi. Ru., Available online: http:\/\/personalii.spmi.ru\/ru\/details\/36105.","DOI":"10.25018\/0236_1493_2022_101_0_39"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.02.082","article-title":"Exergoeconomic analysis of a DI diesel engine fueled with diesel\/biodiesel (B5) emulsions containing aqueous nano cerium oxide","volume":"149","author":"Aghbashlo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2015.04.076","article-title":"Experimental study on fuel economies and emissions of direct-injection premixed combustion engine fueled with gasoline\/diesel blends","volume":"100","author":"Du","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, S., Dahodwala, M., Koehler, E.W., Franke, M., Tomazic, D., and Naber, J. (2020). Trade-Off Analysis and Systematic Optimization of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Hybrid Powertrain, SAE Intenational. SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/2020-01-0847"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Li, Y., Meng, Z., Feng, X., Wang, J., Zhou, H., Li, J., Shi, J., Chen, Q., and Shi, H. (2022). Study on Emission Characteristics and Emission Reduction Effect for Construction Machinery under Actual Operating Conditions Using a Portable Emission Measurement System (Pems). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19159546"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"703","article-title":"Heavy-duty construction equipment: Dinosaurs of black energy?","volume":"694","author":"Koch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Management"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Komatsu Ltd (2023, January 15). Developed an Electric Battery Driven Excavator. Available online: https:\/\/home.komatsu\/en\/press\/2019\/technology\/1202112_1836.html."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"40","article-title":"Metso Makes Waves at bauma 2019","volume":"220","author":"Leonida","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Min. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nevrly, J., Fichta, M., Jurik, M., Nemec, Z., Koutny, D., Vorel, P., and Prochazka, P. (2020). Battery electric drive of excavator designed with support of computer modeling and simulation. Proceedings, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/WEF-06927"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Casoli, I.P., Ricc\u00f2, L., Campanini, F., Lettini, A., and Dolcin, C. (2023, February 28). Hydraulic Hybrid Excavator: Layout Definition, Experimental Activity, Mathematical Model Validation and Fuel Consumption Evaluation. Available online: https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/236373206.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Vauhkonen, N., Liljestr\u00f6m, J., Maharjan, D., Mahat, C., Sainio, P., Kiviluoma, P., and Kuosmanen, P. (2014, January 24\u201326). Electrification of Excavator. Proceedings of the 9th International DAAAM Baltic Conference \u201cIndustrial Engineering\u201d, Tallinn, Estonia. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/287088407_Electrification_of_excavator."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42003","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/300\/4\/042003","article-title":"Research on a new energy-recovery system for hybrid hydraulic excavators","volume":"300","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s40684-022-00437-9","article-title":"Improvement of energy saving for hybrid hydraulic excavator with novel powertrain","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Green Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1065\/lca2006.02.002","article-title":"The new international standards for life cycle assessment: ISO 14040 and ISO 14044","volume":"11","author":"Finkbeiner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework. Standard No. ISO 14040."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Naseem, R.J. (2022). Electrification of the Hydraulic Control System of Off-Road Vehicles, Politecnico di Torino. Available online: https:\/\/webthesis.biblio.polito.it\/24703\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Volvo Maskin, A.S. (2023, February 24). Volvo Construction Equipment\u2019s Product Range- Quality and Productivity. Available online: https:\/\/www.volvoce.com\/norge\/nb-no\/volvo-maskin-as\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3379574","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3379574","article-title":"Review on Li-Ion Battery with Battery Management System in Electrical Vehicle","volume":"2022","author":"Ramkumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Bellona (2023, January 27). Bellona Welcomes EU Battery Strategy but Concrete Actions Must Follow. Available online: https:\/\/bellona.org\/news\/transport\/electric-vehicles\/2018-05-bellona-welcomes-eu-battery-strategy-but-concrete-actions-must-follow."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (2019). EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook. Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories, Publications Office of the European Union. EEA Report."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"EMEP Centre on Emission Inventories and Projections (E.C.o.E.I.a) (2023, March 03). Data Viewer\u2013Reported Emissions Data. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceip.at\/data-viewer."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-020-01769-x","article-title":"Regionalized environmental impacts of construction machinery","volume":"25","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (2016). Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories, European Environment Agency. Available online: https:\/\/www.gtkp.com\/knowledge\/emep-eea-air-pollutant-emission-inventory-guidebook-2016."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Nielsen, O.-K. (2023, April 12). EMEP\/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook 2013. Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories, Available online: https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/etdeweb\/biblio\/22128042."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Lindgren, M. (2023, May 25). A Methodology for Estimating Annual Fuel Consumption and Emissions from Non-Road Mobile Machinery. Available online: https:\/\/pub.epsilon.slu.se\/3791\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Bouwen, P. (2009). Lobbying the European Union: Institutions, Actors, and Issues, The European Commission. Available online: https:\/\/lobbyists.ru\/eu1\/lobbyingeu.pdf#page=36."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bellona (2023, February 01). Database: Emission-Free Construction Equipment by Manufacturer. Available online: https:\/\/bellona.org\/database-emission-free-construction-equipment-by-manufacturer."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Relion Battery (2023, February 24). Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery. Available online: https:\/\/ceb8596f236225acd007-8e95328c173a04ed694af83ee4e24c15.ssl.cf5.rackcdn.com\/docs\/product\/Relion-Data-Sheet-RB200-noRU.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"17","article-title":"Automotive lithium-ion batteries","volume":"60","author":"Higashimoto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hitachi Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2022.106164","article-title":"Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-ion Batteries: A Critical Review","volume":"180","author":"Arshad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lajunen, A., Sainio, P., Laurila, L., Pippuri-M\u00e4kel\u00e4inen, J., and Tammi, K. (2018). Overview of powertrain electrification and future scenarios for non-road mobile machinery. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11051184"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nie, Y., Wang, Y., Li, L., and Liao, H. (2023). Literature Review on Power Battery Echelon Reuse and Recycling from a Circular Economy Perspective. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20054346"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.04.057","article-title":"Environmental impacts of Lithium Metal Polymer and Lithium-ion stationary batteries","volume":"78","author":"Vandepaer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5495","DOI":"10.1021\/es400614y","article-title":"Potential environmental and human health impacts of rechargeable lithium batteries in electronic waste","volume":"47","author":"Kang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2022.103192","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of diesel and hydrogen power systems in tugboats","volume":"103","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.106635","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery with a silicon anode for electric vehicles","volume":"60","author":"Costa","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-023-05177-8","article-title":"Sediment records of lake eutrophication and oligotrophication under the influence of human activity and climate warming in the Urals metallurgical region (Russia)","volume":"850","author":"Maslennikova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dean, S., Akhtar, M.S., Ditta, A., Valipour, M., and Aslam, S. (2022). Microcosm Study on the Potential of Aquatic Macrophytes for Phytoremediation of Phosphorus-Induced Eutrophication. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su142416415"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidhi, R., and Shrivastava, P. (2018). A review of electric vehicle lifecycle emissions and policy recommendations to increase EV penetration in India. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11030483"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.116807","article-title":"Environmental trade-offs and externalities of electrochemical-based batteries: Quantitative analysis between lithium-ion and vanadium redox flow units","volume":"326","author":"Tsai","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Steen, M., Lebedeva, N., Di Persio, F., and Boon-Brett, L. (2017). EU Competitiveness in Advanced Li-Ion Batteries for E-Mobility and Stationary Storage Applications\u2013Opportunities and Actions, Publications Office of the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/132627095.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.10.016","article-title":"Providing a common base for life cycle assessments of Li-Ion batteries","volume":"171","author":"Peters","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-015-1003-7","article-title":"Cradle to gate: Life cycle impact of primary aluminium production","volume":"21","author":"Nunez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.10.066","article-title":"Lifecycle costs and charging requirements of electric buses with different charging methods","volume":"172","author":"Lajunen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.31897\/PMI.2022.15","article-title":"Production of Biodiesel Fuel from Vegetable Raw Materials","volume":"260","author":"Kondrasheva","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Min. Inst."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2023.136008","article-title":"Environmental life cycle assessment of recycling technologies for ternary lithium-ion batteries","volume":"389","author":"Tao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.08.039","article-title":"The environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries and the role of key parameters\u2014A review","volume":"67","author":"Peters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(99)00261-X","article-title":"A laboratory-scale lithium battery recycling process","volume":"83","author":"Contestabile","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2009.08.004","article-title":"Recycling rechargeable lithium ion batteries: Critical analysis of natural resource savings","volume":"54","author":"Dewulf","year":"2010","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prime.2023.100127","article-title":"A comprehensive overview of electric vehicle batteries market","volume":"3","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2023","journal-title":"e-Prime Adv. Electr. Eng. Electron. Energy"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1177\/0734242X20966637","article-title":"A comparative life cycle assessment on lithium-ion battery: Case study on electric vehicle battery in China considering battery evolution","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2007.11.074","article-title":"A review of processes and technologies for the recycling of lithium-ion secondary batteries","volume":"177","author":"Xu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.5296\/jee.v4i1.3257","article-title":"Battery recycling technologies: Recycling waste lithium ion batteries with the impact on the environment in-view","volume":"10","author":"Bankole","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123083","article-title":"Recycling technologies of nickel\u2013metal hydride batteries: An LCA based analysis","volume":"273","author":"Silvestri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.153105","article-title":"Comparative life cycle assessment of LFP and NCM batteries including the secondary use and different recycling technologies","volume":"819","author":"Quan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.152224","article-title":"Environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling and reusing for manufacturing of lithium-ion traction batteries in China","volume":"811","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2022.104767","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide batteries and lithium iron phosphate batteries for electric vehicles in China","volume":"52","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2023.136534","article-title":"Greening industry: Opportunities and challenges in electricity access for Norwegian industry firms","volume":"396","author":"Larsen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.20965\/ijat.2017.p0572","article-title":"Life cycle analysis of emissions from electric and gasoline vehicles in different regions","volume":"11","author":"Romejko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Technol."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/16\/16\/6025\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:35:45Z","timestamp":1760128545000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/16\/16\/6025"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["en16166025"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en16166025","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]]}}}