{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T02:22:47Z","timestamp":1776738167704,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]],"date-time":"2017-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1513123200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Environments"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A new class of geopolymer composites, as materials alternative to traditional binders, was synthesized and its potentialities as restoration material in Cultural Heritage has been explored. This material has been prepared through a co-reticulation reaction in mild conditions of a metakaolin-based geopolymer inorganic matrix and a commercial epoxy resin. The freshly prepared slurry displays a consistency, workability and thixotropic behavior that make it suitable to be spread on different substrates in restoration, repair and reinforcement actions, even on walls and ceilings. Applicability and compatibility tests on tuff and concrete substrates were carried out and the microstructure of the samples in correspondence of the transition zone was analyzed by means of scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) mapping. Our studies pointed out the formation of a continuous phase between the geopolymer composite and tuff and concrete substrates, highlighting a high compatibility of the geopolymer binder with different kinds of materials. These features indicate a large potential for applications of these materials in Cultural Heritage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/environments4040091","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,14]],"date-time":"2017-12-14T04:30:55Z","timestamp":1513225855000},"page":"91","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Geopolymer Composites for Potential Applications in Cultural Heritage"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Laura","family":"Ricciotti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Universit\u00e0 di Napoli \u2018Parthenope\u2019, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Napoli, Italy"},{"name":"INSTM Research Group Napoli Parthenope, National Consortium for Science and Technology of Materials, Via G. Giusti, 9, 50121 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7959-7126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Molino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Universit\u00e0 di Napoli \u2018Parthenope\u2019, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Napoli, Italy"},{"name":"INSTM Research Group Napoli Parthenope, National Consortium for Science and Technology of Materials, Via G. Giusti, 9, 50121 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Roviello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Servizi Metrologici Avanzati (CeSMA), Universit\u00e0 di Napoli \u2018Federico II\u2019, Corso Nicolangelo Protopisani, 80146 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9120-6463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Chianese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie, Universit\u00e0 di Napoli \u2018Parthenope\u2019, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Cennamo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facolt\u00e0 di Lettere, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi Suor Orsola Benincasa, Corso Vittorio Emanuele 242, 80132 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Giuseppina","family":"Roviello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Universit\u00e0 di Napoli \u2018Parthenope\u2019, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Napoli, Italy"},{"name":"INSTM Research Group Napoli Parthenope, National Consortium for Science and Technology of Materials, Via G. Giusti, 9, 50121 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13160","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-013-2367-5","article-title":"Source apportion of atmospheric particulate matter: A joint Eulerian\/Lagrangian approach","volume":"21","author":"Riccio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2017.05.008","article-title":"Emission factors of inorganic ions from road traffic: A case study from the city of Naples (Italy)","volume":"54","author":"Riccio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"509","article-title":"Measurements for indoor air quality assessment at the Capodimonte Museum in Naples (Italy)","volume":"6","author":"Chianese","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.05.084","article-title":"Assessment of air pollutant sources in the deposit on monuments by multivariate analysis","volume":"490","author":"Ozga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and International Scientific Committee for Analysis and Restoration of Structures of Architectural Heritage (2003). Recommendations for the Analysis, Conservation and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage, ICOMOS."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.11.021","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of shear and compression strength of masonry wall before and after reinforcement: Deep repointing","volume":"22","author":"Corradi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-014-0359-7","article-title":"Current practice and open issues in strengthening historical buildings with composites","volume":"47","author":"Valluzzi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10971-015-3684-6","article-title":"Nanocrystalline TiO2 coatings by sol\u2013gel: Photocatalytic activity on Pietra di Noto biocalcarenite","volume":"75","author":"Bergamonti","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9418(03)00105-3","article-title":"Polyacrylates for conservation: Chemico-physical properties and durability of different commercial products","volume":"23","author":"Cocca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2016.08.009","article-title":"Metakaolin as a precursor of materials for applications in Cultural Heritage: Geopolymer-based mortars with ornamental stone aggregates","volume":"132\u2013133","author":"Clausi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-016-9709-3","article-title":"Geopolymers as potential repair material in tiles conservation","volume":"122","author":"Geraldes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1039\/b212629j","article-title":"Chemical optimisation of the compressive strength of aluminosilicate geopolymers synthesised by sodium silicate activation of metakaolinite","volume":"13","author":"Rowles","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Davidovits, J. (2011). Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications, Institut Geopolymere. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.21809\/rilemtechlett.2016.6","article-title":"Recent update on the environmental impact of geopolymers","volume":"1","author":"Habert","year":"2016","journal-title":"RILEM Tech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.08.018","article-title":"The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of \u2018green concrete\u2019","volume":"37","author":"Duxson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2012.11.001","article-title":"Novel hybrid organic-geopolymer materials","volume":"73","author":"Ferone","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.3390\/ma6051920","article-title":"Application-oriented chemical optimization of a metakaolin based geopolymer","volume":"6","author":"Ferone","year":"2013","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18200","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms140918200","article-title":"Synthesis and characterizations of melamine-based epoxy resins","volume":"14","author":"Ricciotti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3943","DOI":"10.3390\/ma6093943","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Epoxy Geopolymer Hybrid Composites","volume":"6","author":"Roviello","year":"2013","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics3010076","article-title":"Morphology, electrical performance and potentiometry of PDIF-CN2 thin-film transistors on HMDS-treated and bare silicon dioxide","volume":"3","author":"Chiarella","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2989","DOI":"10.3390\/ma6072989","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of new geopolymer-epoxy resin hybrid mortars","volume":"6","author":"Colangelo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strini, A., Roviello, G., Ricciotti, L., Ferone, C., Messina, F., Schiavi, L., and Cioffi, R. (2016). TiO2-Based Photocatalytic Geopolymers for Nitric Oxide Degradation. Materials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9070513"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2015.03.007","article-title":"Fire resistant melamine based organic-geopolymer hybrid composites","volume":"59","author":"Roviello","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2015.08.006","article-title":"Preparation, structure and properties of hybrid materials based on geopolymers and polysiloxanes","volume":"87","author":"Roviello","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.06.029","article-title":"Thermal cycling stability of fly ash based geopolymer mortars","volume":"129","author":"Colangelo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.039","article-title":"Synergistic recycling of calcined clayey sediments and water potabilization sludge as geopolymer precursors: Upscaling from binders to precast paving cement-free bricks","volume":"133","author":"Messina","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.07.020","article-title":"Lightweight geopolymer-based hybrid materials","volume":"128","author":"Roviello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.11.016","article-title":"Mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight geopolymer composites containing recycled expanded polystyrene","volume":"86","author":"Colangelo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roviello, G., Ricciotti, L., Tarallo, O., Ferone, C., Colangelo, F., Roviello, V., and Cioffi, R. (2016). Innovative fly ash geopolymer-epoxy composites: Preparation, microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9060461"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.08.021","article-title":"Comparative performance of geopolymers made with metakaolin and fly ash after exposure to elevated temperatures","volume":"37","author":"Kong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3486","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-2916.2010.03906.x","article-title":"The effects of temperature on the local structure of metakaolin-based geopolymer binder: A neutron pair distribution function investigation","volume":"93","author":"White","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3044","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-006-0535-4","article-title":"Physical evolution of Na-geopolymer derived from metakaolin up to 1000 \u00b0C","volume":"42","author":"Duxson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-577X(02)00971-0","article-title":"The characterisation of source materials in fly ash-based geopolymers","volume":"57","author":"Lukey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S1466-6049(00)00041-6","article-title":"Synthesis and characterisation of materials based on inorganic polymers of alumina and silica: Sodium polysialate polymers","volume":"2","author":"Barbosa","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Inorg. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3039","DOI":"10.1039\/b203859e","article-title":"FTIR study of the thermal transformation of barium-exchanged zeolite A to celsian","volume":"12","author":"Aronne","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1021\/es00018a024","article-title":"Leaching effects on silicate polymerization, A FTIR and 29Si NMR study of lead and zinc in Portland cement","volume":"25","author":"Ortego","year":"1991","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3093(99)00555-4","article-title":"Solid state 27Al NMR and FTIR study of lanthanum aluminosilicate glasses","volume":"258","author":"Clayden","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1002\/app.1918","article-title":"Modification of epoxy resin with kaolin as a toughening agent","volume":"82","author":"Fellahi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2005.01.016","article-title":"Synthesis and mechanical properties of metakaolinite-based geopolymer","volume":"268","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Silverstein, R.M., Bassler, G.C., and Morrill, T.C. (1981). Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, John Wiley and Sons. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-5408(02)01022-X","article-title":"Thermal behaviour of inorganic geopolymers and composites derived from sodium polysialate","volume":"38","author":"Barbosa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1346\/CCMN.1996.0440103","article-title":"The application of drift spectroscopy to the multicomponent analysis of organic chemicals adsorbed on montmorillonite","volume":"44","author":"Parker","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clays Clay Miner."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"10","article-title":"Raman microscopy of some kaolinite clay minerals","volume":"41","author":"Frost","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. J. Appl. Spectrosc."}],"container-title":["Environments"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3298\/4\/4\/91\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:53:52Z","timestamp":1760208832000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3298\/4\/4\/91"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["environments4040091"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/environments4040091","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3298"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3298","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]}}}