{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T10:06:42Z","timestamp":1793786802746,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":160,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]],"date-time":"2023-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Clostridium botulinum produces Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), causing a rare but potentially deadly type of food poisoning called foodborne botulism. This review aims to provide information on the bacterium, spores, toxins, and botulisms, and describe the use of physical treatments (e.g., heating, pressure, irradiation, and other emerging technologies) to control this biological hazard in food. As the spores of this bacterium can resist various harsh environmental conditions, such as high temperatures, the thermal inactivation of 12-log of C. botulinum type A spores remains the standard for the commercial sterilization of food products. However, recent advancements in non-thermal physical treatments present an alternative to thermal sterilization with some limitations. Low- (&lt;2 kGy) and medium (3\u20135 kGy)-dose ionizing irradiations are effective for a log reduction of vegetative cells and spores, respectively; however, very high doses (&gt;10 kGy) are required to inactivate BoNTs. High-pressure processing (HPP), even at 1.5 GPa, does not inactivate the spores and requires heat combination to achieve its goal. Other emerging technologies have also shown some promise against vegetative cells and spores; however, their application to C. botulinum is very limited. Various factors related to bacteria (e.g., vegetative stage, growth conditions, injury status, type of bacteria, etc.) food matrix (e.g., compositions, state, pH, temperature, aw, etc.), and the method (e.g., power, energy, frequency, distance from the source to target, etc.) influence the efficacy of these treatments against C. botulinum. Moreover, the mode of action of different physical technologies is different, which provides an opportunity to combine different physical treatment methods in order to achieve additive and\/or synergistic effects. This review is intended to guide the decision-makers, researchers, and educators in using physical treatments to control C. botulinum hazards.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12081580","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]],"date-time":"2023-04-10T03:15:57Z","timestamp":1681096557000},"page":"1580","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Physical Treatments to Control Clostridium botulinum Hazards in Food"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6125-2960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Tanveer","family":"Munir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"EnvA, Unit of Hygiene, Quality and Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"},{"name":"Anses, Laboratory of Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Narjes","family":"Mtimet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EnvA, Unit of Hygiene, Quality and Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"},{"name":"Anses, Laboratory of Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7867-2937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurent","family":"Guillier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anses, Unit UERALIM, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0353-4871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Meurens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, Oniris, BIOEPAR, 44307 Nantes, France"},{"name":"Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal, St-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phillipe","family":"Fravalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chaire Agroalimentaire du Cnam, Conservatoire des Arts et M\u00e9tiers, EPN7, 22440 Ploufragan, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1108-6490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michel","family":"Federighi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EnvA, Unit of Hygiene, Quality and Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"},{"name":"Anses, Laboratory of Food Safety, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pauline","family":"Kooh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anses, Unit UERALIM, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2023, January 20). Botulism. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/botulism."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003917","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.1003917","article-title":"Human and Animal Botulism Surveillance in France from 2008 to 2019","volume":"10","author":"Lucas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"ANSES (2021). Clostridium botulinum: Mise \u00e0 Jour Des Connaissances Sur Les Diff\u00e9rentes Formes Des Types C, D, Mosa\u00efque C\/D et D\/C et E, ANSES. (Saisines 2019-SA-0112 \u00e0 2019-SA-0115)."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munir, M.T., and Federighi, M. (2020). Control of Foodborne Biological Hazards by Ionizing Radiations. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9070878"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02731-16","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02731-16","article-title":"Inactivation Strategies for Clostridium Perfringens Spores and Vegetative Cells","volume":"83","author":"Talukdar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radphyschem.2015.10.008","article-title":"Use of Gamma Radiation on Control of Clostridium botulinum in Mortadella Formulated with Different Nitrite Levels","volume":"119","author":"Dutra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radiat. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00474","article-title":"Biocontrol and Rapid Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens Using Bacteriophages and Endolysins","volume":"7","author":"Bai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.128562","article-title":"Development of an Endolysin Enzyme and Its Cell Wall-Binding Domain Protein and Their Applications for Biocontrol and Rapid Detection of Clostridium perfringens in Food","volume":"345","author":"Cho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), Mortensen, A., Aguilar, F., Crebelli, R., Di Domenico, A., Dusemund, B., Frutos, M.J., Galtier, P., Gott, D., and Gundert-Remy, U. (2017). Re-Evaluation of Potassium Nitrite (E 249) and Sodium Nitrite (E 250) as Food Additives. EFSA J., 15, e04786.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2017.4786"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Codex (2023, March 01). Codex Alimentarius Commission; Thirteenth Session; Rome, Italy, 3\u201314 December 1979. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/input\/download\/report\/359\/al79_18e.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overview of Irradiation of Food and Packaging","volume":"875","author":"Morehouse","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Symp. Ser."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maier, M.B., Schweiger, T., Lenz, C.A., and Vogel, R.F. (2018). Inactivation of Non-Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum Type E in Low-Acid Foods and Phosphate Buffer by Heat and Pressure. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200102"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8202","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02007-12","article-title":"Synergistic Effects of High Hydrostatic Pressure, Mild Heating, and Amino Acids on Germination and Inactivation of Clostridium sporogenes Spores","volume":"78","author":"Ishimori","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-59.7.711","article-title":"Use of High Hydrostatic Pressure and Irradiation To Eliminate Clostridium sporogenes Spores in Chicken Breast","volume":"59","author":"Crawford","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01426-08","article-title":"Synergistic Inactivation of Spores of Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum Strains by High Pressure and Heat Is Strain and Product Dependent","volume":"75","author":"Bull","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Cavenee, W.L. (1961). The Combined Effects of Heat and Irradiation on the Survival of the Spores of Clostridium botulinum, Type A5, in Raw Ground Beef. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Oregon State University]."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1962.tb00084.x","article-title":"Effect of Radiation Environment on the Thermal Resistance of Irradiated Spores of Clostridium sporogenes P.A. 3679","volume":"27","author":"Licciardello","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1139\/m71-024","article-title":"Effect of Irradiation Temperature in the Range \u2212196 to 95C on the Resistance of Spores of Clostridium botulinum 33A in Cooked Beef","volume":"17","author":"Grecz","year":"1971","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-12-181","article-title":"Effect of Packaging Systems and Pressure Fluids on Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Spores by Combined High Pressure and Thermal Processing","volume":"76","author":"Patazca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Wexler, P. (2014). Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Popoff, M.R. (2017). Risques Microbiologiques Alimentaires, Tec & Doc Lavoisier."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"ANSES (2010). Clostridium botulinum, and Neurotoxigenic Clostridia, ANSES. Data Sheet on Foodborne Microbial Hazards, (Saisine n\u00b02016-SA-0074) December, 2010 (Updated in 2019)."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poulain, B., and Popoff, M.R. (2019). Why Are Botulinum Neurotoxin-Producing Bacteria So Diverse and Botulinum Neurotoxins So Toxic?. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11010034"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2014.10.010","article-title":"Genomes, Neurotoxins and Biology of Clostridium botulinum Group I and Group II","volume":"166","author":"Carter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fillo, S., Giordani, F., Tonon, E., Drigo, I., Anselmo, A., Fortunato, A., Lista, F., and Bano, L. (2021). Extensive Genome Exploration of Clostridium botulinum Group III Field Strains. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9112347"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14130","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14130","article-title":"Identification and Characterization of a Novel Botulinum Neurotoxin","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gregory, K.S., and Acharya, K.R. (2023). A Comprehensive Structural Analysis of Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin A Cell-Binding Domain from Different Subtypes. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15020092"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"CDC (2023, January 20). Botulism, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/botulism\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evaa043","article-title":"Genomic Characterization of Newly Completed Genomes of Botulinum Neurotoxin-Producing Species from Argentina, Australia, and Africa","volume":"12","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genome Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peck, M.W., Smith, T.J., Anniballi, F., Austin, J.W., Bano, L., Bradshaw, M., Cuervo, P., Cheng, L.W., Derman, Y., and Dorner, B.G. (2017). Historical Perspectives and Guidelines for Botulinum Neurotoxin Subtype Nomenclature. Toxins, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9010038"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.6282807","article-title":"Genome Sequence of a Proteolytic (Group I) Clostridium botulinum Strain Hall A and Comparative Analysis of the Clostridial Genomes","volume":"17","author":"Sebaihia","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"GPP3-0017-2018","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.GPP3-0017-2018","article-title":"Sporulation and Germination in Clostridial Pathogens","volume":"7","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Portinha, I.M., Douillard, F.P., Korkeala, H., and Lindstr\u00f6m, M. (2022). Sporulation Strategies and Potential Role of the Exosporium in Survival and Persistence of Clostridium botulinum. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23020754"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01702","article-title":"Diversity of the Germination Apparatus in Clostridium botulinum Groups I, II, III, and IV","volume":"7","author":"Brunt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00652","article-title":"High Pressure Thermal Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Type E Endospores\u2014Kinetic Modeling and Mechanistic Insights","volume":"6","author":"Lenz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ECDC (2023, January 20). Facts about Botulism. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/botulism\/facts."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popoff, M.R., and Br\u00fcggemann, H. (2022). Regulatory Networks Controlling Neurotoxin Synthesis in Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium Tetani. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14060364"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099184","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1099184","article-title":"Clostridium botulinum Type C, D, C\/D, and D\/C: An Update","volume":"13","author":"Meurens","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-424X(09)70353-8","article-title":"Chapter 17: Botulinum Toxin Mechanisms of Action","volume":"Volume 57","author":"Hallett","year":"2004","journal-title":"Supplements to Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"489","article-title":"Botulinum Toxin: Bioweapon & Magic Drug","volume":"132","author":"Dhaked","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"ECDC (2023). Botulism\u2014Annual Epidemiological Report for 2020, ECDC."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"CDC (2023, March 02). Botulism|Epidemiological Overview for Clinicians, Available online: https:\/\/www.emergency.cdc.gov\/agent\/botulism\/clinicians\/epidemiology.asp."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1979.tb09110.x","article-title":"Heat Inactivation Rates of Botulinum Toxins A, B, E and F in Some Foods and Buffers","volume":"44","author":"Woodburn","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.36.2.386-388.1978","article-title":"Establishment of a Heat Inactivation Curve for Clostridium botulinum 62A Toxin in Beef Broth","volume":"36","author":"Losikoff","year":"1978","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1978.tb02369.x","article-title":"Heat Inactivation of Botulinum Toxin Type A in Some Convenience Foods after Frozen Storage","volume":"43","author":"Woolford","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.08.014","article-title":"A Systematic Approach to Determine Global Thermal Inactivation Parameters for Various Food Pathogens","volume":"107","author":"Zwietering","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6019","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01737-16","article-title":"Systematic Assessment of Nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum Spores for Heat Resistance","volume":"82","author":"Wachnicka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109162","article-title":"Cardinal Parameter Growth and Growth Boundary Model for Non-Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum\u2014Effect of Eight Environmental Factors","volume":"346","author":"Koukou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Federighi, M., and Friant-Perrot, M. (2009). S\u00e9curit\u00e9 des Patients, S\u00e9curit\u00e9 des Consommateurs, Presses Universitaires de France."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, T., Liao, X., and Feng, J. (2022). Stress Responses of Foodborne Pathogens, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-90578-1"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cebri\u00e1n, G., Cond\u00f3n, S., and Ma\u00f1as, P. (2017). Physiology of the Inactivation of Vegetative Bacteria by Thermal Treatments: Mode of Action, Influence of Environmental Factors and Inactivation Kinetics. Foods, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods6120107"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1034","article-title":"Influence of Prior PH and Thermal Stresses on Thermal Tolerance of Foodborne Pathogens","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.65.5.2136-2142.1999","article-title":"Growth from Spores of Nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum in Heat-Treated Vegetable Juice","volume":"65","author":"Stringer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.34.1.23-29.1977","article-title":"Thermal Destruction of Clostridium botulinum Spores Suspended in Tomato Juice in Aluminum Thermal Death Time Tubes","volume":"34","author":"Odlaug","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Selby, K. (2017). Growth Temperature Variation and Heat Stress Response of Clostridium botulinum. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Helsinki]."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.11.003","article-title":"Hazard and Control of Group II (Non-Proteolytic) Clostridium botulinum in Modern Food Processing","volume":"108","author":"Kiviniemi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2006.02987.x","article-title":"Clostridium botulinum and the Safety of Minimally Heated, Chilled Foods: An Emerging Issue?","volume":"101","author":"Peck","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2020.103512","article-title":"High Prevalence of Clostridium botulinum in Vegetarian Sausages","volume":"91","author":"Pernu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.62.1.81-96.1951","article-title":"Studies on Factors Affecting the Heat Resistance of Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"62","author":"Sugiyama","year":"1951","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2014.05.010","article-title":"Effect of Sporulation Medium and Its Divalent Cation Content on the Heat and High Pressure Resistance of Clostridium botulinum Type E Spores","volume":"44","author":"Lenz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.32.1.172-178.1976","article-title":"Influence of Postirradiation Incubation Temperature on Recovery of Radiation-Injured Clostridium botulinum 62A Spores","volume":"32","author":"Chowdhury","year":"1976","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-14-186","article-title":"Effect of Sporulation Temperature on the Resistance of Clostridium botulinum Type A Spores to Thermal and High Pressure Processing","volume":"78","author":"Marshall","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-71.5.953","article-title":"Morphological Study of Heat-Sensitive and Heat-Resistant Spores of Clostridium Sporogenes, Using Transmission Electron Microscopy","volume":"71","author":"Mah","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-food-041715-033144","article-title":"Bacterial Spores in Food: Survival, Emergence, and Outgrowth","volume":"7","author":"Eijlander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1979.tb09109.x","article-title":"Thermal Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Toxins Types a and B in Buffer, and Beef and Mushroom Patties","volume":"44","author":"Bradshaw","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12557","DOI":"10.1021\/jf1028398","article-title":"Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin Type B Is Heat-Stable in Milk and Not Inactivated by Pasteurization","volume":"58","author":"Rasooly","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2022). Acute Botulism in German Dairy Herds: Human Cases of Botulism from the Consumption of Milk and Dairy Products Are Very Unlikely: BfR Opinion No. 027\/2022 Issued 20 October 2022. BfR\u2014Stellungnahmen, 2022, 12."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1139\/m66-052","article-title":"The Effect of Temperature on Toxin Formation and Toxin Stability of Clostridium botulinum Type e in Different Environments","volume":"12","author":"Abrahamsson","year":"1966","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-14-378","article-title":"Effect of Fill Temperature on Clostridium botulinum Type A Toxin Activity during the Hot Filling of Juice Bottles","volume":"78","author":"Skinner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1987.tb00490.x","article-title":"In-Vitro Heat Denaturation of Clostridium botulinum Toxins Types A, B and C","volume":"22","author":"Smart","year":"1987","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"FDA (2023, January 21). Food Irradiation: What You Need to Know, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/food\/buy-store-serve-safe-food\/food-irradiation-what-you-need-know."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5883","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2539","article-title":"Review of proposed different irradiation methods to inactivate food-processing viruses and microorganisms","volume":"9","author":"Shahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579593","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/579593","article-title":"Electron Beam Irradiation Dose Dependently Damages the Bacillus Spore Coat and Spore Membrane","volume":"2012","author":"Fiester","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1128\/am.10.4.326-330.1962","article-title":"Comparative Resistance of Strains of Clostridium botulinum to Gamma Rays","volume":"10","author":"Anellis","year":"1962","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Grecz, N. (1966, January 6\u201310). Theoretical and Applied Aspects of Radiation D-Values for Spores of Clostridium botulinum. Proceedings of the Food Irradiation: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Food Irradiation, Karlsruhe, Germany. ISSN 0074-1884."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1961.tb00370.x","article-title":"Radioresistance of Five Strains of Clostridium botulinum in Selected Food Productsa, b","volume":"26","author":"Wheaton","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"125","article-title":"The Resistance of Spores of Clostridium botulinum Type E to Heat and Radiation","volume":"28","author":"Roberts","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.34.6.823-831.1977","article-title":"Cryogenic Gamma Irradiation of Prototype Pork and Chicken and Antagonistic Effect between Clostridium botulinum Types A and B","volume":"34","author":"Anellis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1983.tb14808.x","article-title":"Clostridium botulinum Ionizing Radiation D-Value Determination Using a Micro Food Sample System","volume":"48","author":"Kreiger","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1962.tb00101.x","article-title":"Radiation Survival Curves of Clostridium botulinum Spores","volume":"27","author":"Wheaton","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"(1999). Directive 1999\/3\/EC Directive 1999\/3\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999 on the Establishment of a Community List of Foods and Food Ingredients Treated with Ionising Radiation, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2023, March 22). 21CFR179.26 CFR\u2014Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Available online: https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=179.26."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(03)00156-9","article-title":"Combined Effects of Ionizing-Irradiation and Different Environments on Clostridium botulinum Type E Spores","volume":"89","author":"Lim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12733.x","article-title":"Factors Affecting Growth and Toxin Production by Clostridium botulinum Type E on Irradiated (0.3 Mrad) Chicken Skins","volume":"47","author":"Rowley","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1960.tb00337.x","article-title":"Radiation Sterilization of Food. I. Procedures for the Evaluation of the Radiation Resistance of Spores of Clostridium botulinum in Food Products","volume":"25","author":"Schmidt","year":"1960","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1962.tb00062.x","article-title":"Radiation Sterilization of Food","volume":"27","author":"Schmidt","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1128\/am.13.3.397-401.1965","article-title":"Survival of Clostridium botulinum Spores","volume":"13","author":"Anellis","year":"1965","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1128\/am.7.3.131-134.1959","article-title":"Combined Irradiation-Heat Processing of Canned Foods. III. Cooked Ground Beef Inoculated with Spores of a Putrefactive Anaerobe","volume":"7","author":"Kempe","year":"1959","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-54.11.894","article-title":"Gamma Radiation Resistance of Clostridium botulinum 62A and Bacillus Subtilis Spores in Honey","volume":"54","author":"Huhtanen","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01921753","article-title":"The Sterilization of Honey with Cobalt 60 Gamma Radiation: A Study of Honey Spiked with Spores of Clostridium botulinum and Bacillus Subtilis","volume":"51","author":"Postmes","year":"1995","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1128\/am.10.1.31-36.1962","article-title":"Gamma-Ray Sterilization and Residual Toxicity Studies of Ground Beef Inoculated with Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"10","author":"Kempe","year":"1962","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1959.tb17630.x","article-title":"Destruction of Clostridium botulinum by Ionizing Radiation. Part I. In Neutral Phosphate at Room and Freezing Temperatures","volume":"24","author":"Denny","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"64","article-title":"Effect of Gamma and Electron Beams Irradiation on Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium Perfringens Spores","volume":"1","author":"Nikham","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biol. Indones."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0740-0020(88)90002-0","article-title":"Low Dose Gamma Irradiation Effects on Clostridium botulinum Inoculated Turkey Frankfurters Containing Various Sodium Chloride Levels","volume":"5","author":"Barbut","year":"1988","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1966.tb03506.x","article-title":"A Comparison of Toxin Production by Clostridium botulinum Type E in Irradiated and Unirradiated Vacuum Packed Fish","volume":"29","author":"Cann","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.53.1.201-203.1987","article-title":"Effects of Irradiation on Growth and Toxigenicity of Clostridium botulinum Types A and B Inoculated onto Chicken Skins","volume":"53","author":"Dezfulian","year":"1987","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-58.7.752","article-title":"Effects of Ionizing Radiation and Anaerobic Refrigerated Storage on Indigenous Microflora, Salmonella, and Clostridium botulinum Types A and B in Vacuum-Canned, Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat","volume":"58","author":"Thayer","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-54.2.94","article-title":"Combined Effect of Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Low-Dose Irradiation on Toxin Production by Clostridium botulinum in Fresh Pork","volume":"54","author":"Lambert","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1989.tb05981.x","article-title":"Effect of Irradiation on Antibotulinal Efficacy of Nitrite","volume":"54","author":"Szczawinski","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1983.tb09151.x","article-title":"Effect of Irradiation on the Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum Toxin Production and the Microbial Flora in Bacon","volume":"48","author":"Rowley","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-49.2.112","article-title":"Effect of Sugar and Low-Dose Irradiation on Toxin Production by Clostridium botulinum in Comminuted Bacon","volume":"49","author":"Huhtanen","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1128\/am.6.4.261-263.1958","article-title":"Combined Irradiation-Heat Processing of Canned Foods. II. Raw Ground Beef Inoculated with Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"6","author":"Kempe","year":"1958","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1128\/am.5.5.292-295.1957","article-title":"Combined Irradiation-Heat Processing of Canned Foods: I. Cooked Ground Beef Inoculated with Clostridium botulinum Spores","volume":"5","author":"Kempe","year":"1957","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Graikoski, J.T., and Kempe, L.L. (2023, March 02). A Study of the Effect of Ionizing Radiation on Resistance, Germination, and Toxin Synthesis of Clostridium botulinum Spores, Types A, B, and E. TID Rep. University of Michigan. Available online: https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2027.42\/5195."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1128\/am.18.1.44-50.1969","article-title":"Resistance of Spores of Clostridium botulinum 33A to Combinations of Ultraviolet and Gamma Rays1","volume":"18","author":"Durban","year":"1969","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1988.tb01889.x","article-title":"Studies on the Irradiation of Toxins of Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus Aureus","volume":"65","author":"Rose","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.84.6.1268-1273.1962","article-title":"Fermentative Activities of Control and Radiation-\u201cKilled\u201d Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"84","author":"Costilow","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1967.tb00362.x","article-title":"The Nature of Heat Resistant Toxin in Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"11","author":"Grecz","year":"1967","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1128\/am.13.5.743-748.1965","article-title":"Radiation Injury of Clostridium botulinum Spores in Cured Meat","volume":"13","author":"Greenberg","year":"1965","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"15","article-title":"Toxicity of Spores of Clostridium botulinum Strain 33 a in Irradiated Ground Beef","volume":"56","author":"Fernandez","year":"1969","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Guillou, S., Lerasle, M., Simonin, H., and Federighi, M. (2017). Emerging Technologies in Meat Processing, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3225","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12763","article-title":"Aspects of High Hydrostatic Pressure Food Processing: Perspectives on Technology and Food Safety","volume":"20","author":"Aganovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (BIOHAZ Panel), Koutsoumanis, K., Alvarez-Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, A., Bolton, D., Bover-Cid, S., Chemaly, M., Davies, R., De Cesare, A., Herman, L., and Hilbert, F. (2022). The Efficacy and Safety of High-Pressure Processing of Food. EFSA J., 20, e07128.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2022.7128"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-020-00831-6","article-title":"Microbial Inactivation by High Pressure Processing: Principle, Mechanism and Factors Responsible","volume":"30","author":"Sehrawat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12724","article-title":"High Pressure Processing Combined with Selected Hurdles: Enhancement in the Inactivation of Vegetative Microorganisms","volume":"20","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2010.02.004","article-title":"Effect of Media, Additives, and Incubation Conditions on the Recovery of High Pressure and Heat-Injured Clostridium botulinum Spores","volume":"27","author":"Reddy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-4565.1999.tb00252.x","article-title":"Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Type E Spores by High Pressure Processing","volume":"19","author":"Reddy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-66.8.1402","article-title":"Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Type A Spores by High-Pressure Processing at Elevated Temperatures","volume":"66","author":"Reddy","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2006.03.002","article-title":"Inactivation of Clostridium botulinum Nonproteolytic Type B Spores by High Pressure Processing at Moderate to Elevated High Temperatures","volume":"7","author":"Reddy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2530","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-67.11.2530","article-title":"Comparison of Pressure and Heat Resistance of Clostridium botulinum and Other Endospores in Mashed Carrots","volume":"67","author":"Margosch","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-17-175","article-title":"Effect of High Pressures in Combination with Temperature on the Inactivation of Spores of Nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum Types B and F","volume":"81","author":"Skinner","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-14-259","article-title":"Combined High Pressure and Thermal Processing on Inactivation of Type E and Nonproteolytic Type B and F Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"77","author":"Skinner","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2021.112671","article-title":"High Pressure Destruction Kinetics of Clostridium botulinum (Group I, Strain PA9508B) Spores in Milk at Elevated Temperatures","volume":"154","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbp.2013.02.009","article-title":"Screening of Twelve Clostridium botulinum (Group I) Spores for High-Pressure Resistance at Elevated-Temperatures","volume":"91","author":"Ramaswamy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Bioprod. Process."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.109278","article-title":"Evaluation of Factors Influencing the Growth of Non-Toxigenic Clostridium botulinum Type E and Clostridium Sp. in High-Pressure Processed and Conditioned Tender Coconut Water from Thailand","volume":"134","author":"Clauwers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"8","article-title":"Effects of Combined High Pressure-Temperature Treatments on Clostridium sporogenes Spores in Liquid Media","volume":"71","author":"Maggi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ind. Conserve"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3476","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.72.5.3476-3481.2006","article-title":"High-Pressure-Mediated Survival of Clostridium botulinum and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Endospores at High Temperature","volume":"72","author":"Margosch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-12-538","article-title":"Combined High Pressure and Thermal Processing on Inactivation of Type A and Proteolytic Type B Spores of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"76","author":"Reddy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-15-310","article-title":"Thermal and Pressure-Assisted Thermal Destruction Kinetics for Spores of Type A Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium Sporogenes PA3679","volume":"79","author":"Reddy","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.09.042","article-title":"The Control of Clostridium botulinum during Extended Storage of Pressure-Treated, Cooked Chicken","volume":"37","author":"Linton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657090","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.657090","article-title":"Non-Thermal Technologies for Food Processing","volume":"8","author":"Jadhav","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2022.113215","article-title":"Potential of Pulsed Light Treatment to Pasteurize Pomegranate Juice: Microbial Safety, Enzyme Inactivation, and Phytochemical Retention","volume":"159","author":"Bhagat","year":"2022","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/fqsafe\/fyx017","article-title":"Pulsed Light Processing of Foods for Microbial Safety","volume":"1","author":"Bhavya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Qual. Saf."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13959","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpe.13959","article-title":"Inactivation of Vegetative Cells, Germinated Spores, and Dormant Spores of Bacillus atrophaeus by Pulsed Electric Field with Fixed Energy Input","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Process. Eng."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.4315\/JFP-21-447","article-title":"Pulsed Electric Field Treatments with Nonlethal Field Strength Alter the Properties of Bacterial Spores","volume":"85","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19778","DOI":"10.1038\/srep19778","article-title":"Cell Wall as a Target for Bacteria Inactivation by Pulsed Electric Fields","volume":"6","author":"Pillet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2021.110588","article-title":"Unveiling the Synergistic Effect of Combining Low and High Frequency Electric Fields for Microbiological Safety in Liquid Food Processing","volume":"303","author":"Rezaeimotlagh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2021.108348","article-title":"Combined Pulsed Electric Field and High-Power Ultrasound Treatments for Microbial Inactivation in Oil-in-Water Emulsions","volume":"130","author":"Gallegos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14503","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpp.14503","article-title":"Effect of Pulsed Electric Field with Moderate Heat (80 \u00b0C) on Inactivation, Thermal Resistance and Differential Gene Expression in B. Cereus Spores","volume":"44","author":"Soni","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Process. Preserv."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.10.025","article-title":"Inactivation of Bacillus subtilis Spores by Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) in Combination with Thermal Energy\u2014I. Influence of Process- and Product Parameters","volume":"39","author":"Siemer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2011.11.032","article-title":"Comparison of Intense Pulsed Light- and Ultraviolet (UVC)-Induced Cell Damage in Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7","volume":"25","author":"Cheigh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-021-00971-3","article-title":"Impact of Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Intense Pulsed Light for Reducing Bacillus subtilis Spores","volume":"30","author":"Hwang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2019.03.013","article-title":"Inactivation of Bacillus Subtilis Spores at Various Germination and Outgrowth Stages Using Intense Pulsed Light","volume":"82","author":"Jo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2022.111152","article-title":"Characterization of Pulsed Light for Microbial Inactivation","volume":"334","author":"Cassar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.4315\/JFP-20-469","article-title":"Pulsed-Light Treatment of Dried Parsley: Reduction of Artificially Inoculated Salmonella and Impact in Given Quality Parameters","volume":"84","author":"Dittrich","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.14510","article-title":"Comparison of Water-Assisted Decontamination Systems of Pulsed Light and Ultraviolet for Salmonella Inactivation on Blueberry, Tomato, and Lettuce","volume":"84","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2021.108776","article-title":"Effective Pulsed Light Treatments for Inactivating Salmonella enterica Serotypes","volume":"135","author":"Buosi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"e16850","article-title":"Cold Plasma for Microbial Safety: Principle, Mechanism, and Factors Responsible","volume":"46","author":"Bangar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Process. Preserv."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-food-022811-101132","article-title":"Cold Plasma Decontamination of Foods","volume":"3","author":"Niemira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varilla, C., Marcone, M., and Annor, G.A. (2020). Potential of Cold Plasma Technology in Ensuring the Safety of Foods and Agricultural Produce: A Review. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9101435"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Govaert, M., Smet, C., Baka, M., E\u0107imovi\u0107, B., Walsh, J.L., and Van Impe, J. (2018). Resistance of L. monocytogenes and S. typhimurium towards Cold Atmospheric Plasma as Function of Biofilm Age. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8122702"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2021.1888972","article-title":"Recent Advances in Plasma Technology: Influence of Atmospheric Cold Plasma on Spore Inactivation","volume":"38","author":"Umair","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.focha.2022.100056","article-title":"The Formation, Germination, and Cold Plasma Inactivation of Bacterial Spore","volume":"1","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem. Adv."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2563","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3661-0","article-title":"Gas Discharge Plasmas Are Effective in Inactivating Bacillus and Clostridium Spores","volume":"93","author":"Tseng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1109\/TPS.2010.2041938","article-title":"Cold Plasma Inactivation of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus anthracis (Anthrax) Spores","volume":"38","author":"Dobrynin","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci."},{"key":"ref_156","unstructured":"Sorto, J.C.F. (2019). Inactivation of Bacillus atrophaeus Endospores Using Cold Plasma Treatment. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Escuela Agr\u00edcola Panamericana]."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2562","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2018.1460797","article-title":"Bacterial Spore Inactivation Induced by Cold Plasma","volume":"59","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108921","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2019.108921","article-title":"Low-Energy Short-Term Cold Atmospheric Plasma: Controlling the Inactivation Efficacy of Bacterial Spores in Powders","volume":"130","author":"Martinet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-020-02438-5","article-title":"Cold Atmospheric Plasma Inactivation of Microbial Spores Compared on Reference Surfaces and Powder Particles","volume":"13","author":"Beyrer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16901","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpp.16901","article-title":"Effects of Gas Type and Cold Plasma Treatment Time on Lecanicillium fungicola Spores Reduction and Changes in Qualitative, Chemical, and Physiological Characteristics of Button Mushroom during Postharvest Storage","volume":"46","author":"Pourbagher","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Process. Preserv."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/12\/8\/1580\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:12:22Z","timestamp":1760123542000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/12\/8\/1580"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]]},"references-count":160,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["foods12081580"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods12081580","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]]}}}