{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T17:36:58Z","timestamp":1788284218858,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,15]],"date-time":"2023-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692057600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Emirate of Abu Dhabi ASPIRE Award","award":["AARE20-166"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AARE20-166"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and characteristics of Salmonella isolates in salad vegetables in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Out of 400 samples tested from retail, only 1.25% (95% confidence interval, 0.41\u20132.89) were found to be positive for Salmonella, all of which were from conventional local produce, presented at ambient temperature, and featured as loose items. The five Salmonella-positive samples were arugula (n = 3), dill (n = 1), and spinach (n = 1). The Salmonella isolates from the five samples were found to be pan-susceptible to a panel of 12 antimicrobials tested using a disc diffusion assay. Based on whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis, only two antimicrobial resistance genes were detected\u2014one conferring resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6\u2032)-Iaa) and the other to fosfomycin (fosA7). WGS enabled the analysis of virulence determinants of the recovered Salmonella isolates from salad vegetables, revealing a range from 152 to 165 genes, collectively grouped under five categories, including secretion system, fimbrial adherence determinants, macrophage-inducible genes, magnesium uptake, and non-fimbrial adherence determinants. All isolates were found to possess genes associated with the type III secretion system (TTSS), encoded by Salmonella pathogenicity island-1 (SPI-1), but various genes associated with the second type III secretion system (TTSS-2), encoded by SPI-2, were absent in all isolates. Combining the mean prevalence of Salmonella with information regarding consumption in the UAE, an exposure of 0.0131 salmonellae consumed per person per day through transmission via salad vegetables was calculated. This exposure was used as an input in a beta-Poisson dose\u2013response model, which estimated that there would be 10,584 cases of the Salmonella infection annually for the entire UAE population. In conclusion, salad vegetables sold in the UAE are generally safe for consumption regarding Salmonella occurrence, but occasional contamination is possible. The results of this study may be used for the future development of risk-based food safety surveillance systems in the UAE and to elaborate on the importance for producers, retailers, and consumers to follow good hygiene practices, particularly for raw food items such as leafy salad greens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12163060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,15]],"date-time":"2023-08-15T11:09:44Z","timestamp":1692097784000},"page":"3060","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Assessing the Prevalence and Potential Risks of Salmonella Infection Associated with Fresh Salad Vegetable Consumption in the United Arab Emirates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0938-0607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ihab","family":"Habib","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Public Health Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Environmental Health Department, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21531, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2434-1411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mushtaq","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Zayed Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9563-4393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed-Yousif Ibrahim","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Public Health Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2552-4807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akela","family":"Ghazawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8506-6364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Afra","family":"Abdalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Public Health Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6758-6040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Glindya","family":"Lakshmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Public Health Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3834-8523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Elbediwi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Evolutionary Biology, Institute for Biology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Centre, Cairo 12618, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hassan Mohamed","family":"Al Marzooqi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Research Section, Research and Development Division, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 52150, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanan Sobhy","family":"Afifi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Research Section, Research and Development Division, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 52150, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0760-5945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed Gamal","family":"Shehata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Research Section, Research and Development Division, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 52150, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Food Technology Department, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute (ALCRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTACITY), New Borg El-Arab City 21934, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6102-0353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rami","family":"Al-Rifai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zayed Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2019.106915","article-title":"Prevalence and characterization of Salmonella isolated from raw vegetables in China","volume":"109","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/1574-6968.12127","article-title":"Salmonella, a cross-kingdom pathogen infecting humans and plants","volume":"343","author":"Schikora","year":"2013","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ilic, S., Moodispaw, M.R., Madden, L.V., and Lewis Ivey, M.L. (2022). Lettuce Contamination and Survival of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes in Hydroponic Nutrient Film Technique Systems. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11213508"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.01.028","article-title":"Risk of infection with Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes due to consumption of ready-to-eat leafy vegetables in Brazil","volume":"42","author":"Franco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1908.121511","article-title":"Outbreak-associated Salmonella enterica serotypes and food Commodities, United States, 1998\u20132008","volume":"19","author":"Jackson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2023.104238","article-title":"A worldwide review of illness outbreaks involving mixed salads\/dressings and factors influencing product safety and shelf life","volume":"112","author":"Osaili","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1059235","article-title":"Quantitative Risk Assessment of Salmonellosis in Cambodian Consumers through Chicken and Pork Salad Consumption. Front. Sustain","volume":"6","author":"Rortana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (EFSA and ECDC) (2018). The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2017. EFSA J., 16, e05500.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2018.5500"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habib, I., Mohamed, M.I., and Khan, M. (2021). Current State of Salmonella, Campylobacter and Listeria in the Food Chain across the Arab Countries: A Descriptive Review. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10102369"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-13-135","article-title":"Prevalence and concentration of bacterial pathogens in raw produce and minimally processed packaged salads produced in and for the Netherlands","volume":"77","author":"Wijnands","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-021-03012-7","article-title":"Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: Salmonella spp. prevalence in vegetables and fruits","volume":"37","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3486","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817002400","article-title":"Prevalence, risk factors and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella diarrhoeal infection among children in Thi-Qar Governorate, Iraq","volume":"145","author":"Harb","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Dennehy, J. (2023, April 27). UAE and US in $8bn Drive to Prepare Agriculture for Climate Change. Available online: https:\/\/www.thenationalnews.com\/uae\/2022\/11\/11\/uae-and-us-in-8bn-drive-to-prepare-agriculture-for-climate-change\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108775","article-title":"Human campylobacteriosis related to cross-contamination during handling of raw chicken meat: Application of quantitative risk assessment to guide intervention scenarios analysis in the Australian context","volume":"332","author":"Habib","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.10.027","article-title":"Consumption of raw vegetables and fruits: A risk factor for Campylobacter infections","volume":"144","author":"Jansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539573","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.539573","article-title":"Sample Size Estimation in Veterinary Epidemiologic Research","volume":"7","author":"Stevenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.03.022","article-title":"Validation of EN ISO 6579-1\u2014Microbiology of the food chain\u2014Horizontal method for the detection, enumeration and serotyping of Salmonella\u2014Part 1 detection of Salmonella spp","volume":"288","author":"Mooijman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109835","article-title":"First report from supermarket chicken meat and genomic characterization of colistin resistance mediated by mcr-1.1 in ESBL-producing, multidrug-resistant Salmonella Minnesota","volume":"379","author":"Habib","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s13099-017-0213-x","article-title":"Whole genome sequencing-based detection of antimicrobial resistance and virulence in non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica isolated from wildlife","volume":"9","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut Pathog."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute\u2014CLSI (2020). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated from Animals, CLSI."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x","article-title":"Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance","volume":"18","author":"Magiorakos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"SCAD (Statistics Centre\u2014Abu Dhabi) (2023, March 13). Food Balance Sheet of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi (By Type of Family), Available online: https:\/\/www.scad.gov.ae\/Release%20Documents\/Food%20Balance%20Sheetof%20the%20Emirate%20of%20Abu%20Dhabi_2019_Annual_Yearly_en_v1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.16.1.997","article-title":"Risk analysis in relation to the importation and exportation of animal products","volume":"16","author":"Vose","year":"1997","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"WHO\/FAO (World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2002). Risk Assessments of Salmonella in Eggs and Broiler Chickens."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, March 13). Worldometer. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3284","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.72.5.3284-3290.2006","article-title":"Quantitative microbial risk assessment models for consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with reclaimed water","volume":"72","author":"Hamilton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.01.017","article-title":"Quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate the risk of diarrheal diseases from fresh produce consumption in India","volume":"75","author":"Kundu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01433","article-title":"Comparison of the Microbiological Quality and Safety between Conventional and Organic Vegetables Sold in Malaysia","volume":"8","author":"Kuan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-15-274","article-title":"Prevalence and Characteristics of Salmonella Serotypes Isolated from Fresh Produce Marketed in the United States","volume":"79","author":"Reddy","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M., Alam, M.U., Luies, S.K., Kamal, A., Ferdous, S., Lin, A., Sharior, F., Khan, R., Rahman, Z., and Parvez, S.M. (2021). Contamination of Fresh Produce with Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Associated Risks to Human Health: A Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010360"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2342","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-67.10.2342","article-title":"Fresh produce: A growing cause of outbreaks of foodborne illness in the United States, 1973 through 1997","volume":"67","author":"Sivapalasingam","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0904.020519","article-title":"Alfalfa seed decontamination in a Salmonella outbreak","volume":"9","author":"Gill","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1605.091555","article-title":"Salmonella Senftenberg infections and fennel seed tea, Serbia","volume":"16","author":"Ilic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2951","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2612.200147","article-title":"Characterization and Source Investigation of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Anatum from a Sustained Outbreak, Taiwan","volume":"26","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6650","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.181.21.6650-6655.1999","article-title":"Activation of the cryptic aac(6\u2032)-Iy aminoglycoside resistance gene of Salmonella by a chromosomal deletion generating a transcriptional fusion","volume":"181","author":"Magnet","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkac061","article-title":"Comparison of the prevalence and molecular characteristics of fosA3 and fosA7 among Salmonella isolates from food animals in China","volume":"77","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781306","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.781306","article-title":"Chromosomally Located fosA7 in Salmonella Isolates From China","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6965","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00648-06","article-title":"The translocated Salmonella effector proteins SseF and SseG interact and are required to establish an intracellular replication niche","volume":"74","author":"Deiwick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.12.025","article-title":"Quantitative risk assessment: Is more complex always better? Simple is not stupid and complex is not always more correct","volume":"134","author":"Zwietering","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/12\/16\/3060\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:34:13Z","timestamp":1760128453000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/12\/16\/3060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,15]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["foods12163060"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods12163060","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,15]]}}}