{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T20:11:18Z","timestamp":1780603878596,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFD0401403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFD0401403"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["[2018] No. 4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["[2018] No. 4"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hei Education Union","award":["2018YFD0401403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFD0401403"]}]},{"name":"Hei Education Union","award":["[2018] No. 4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["[2018] No. 4"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study employed electronic nose technology to assess the mold levels in soybeans, conducting analyses on artificially inoculated soybeans with five strains of fungi and distinguishing them from naturally moldy soybeans. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were used to evaluate inoculated and naturally moldy samples. The results revealed that the most influential sensor was W2W, which is sensitive to organic sulfur compounds, followed by W1W (primarily responsive to inorganic sulfur compounds), W5S (sensitive to small molecular nitrogen oxides), W1S (responsive to short-chain alkanes such as methane), and W2S (sensitive to alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, and ketones). These findings highlight that variations in volatile substances among the moldy soybean samples were predominantly attributed to organic sulfur compounds, with significant distinctions noted in inorganic sulfur, nitrogen compounds, short-chain alkanes, and alcohols\/ethers\/aldehydes\/ketones. The results of the PCA and LDA analyses indicated that while both methods demonstrated moderate effectiveness in distinguishing between different dominant fungal inoculations and naturally moldy soybeans, they were more successful in differentiating various levels of moldiness, achieving a discriminative accuracy rate of 82.72% in LDA. Overall, the findings suggest that electronic nose detection technology can effectively identify mold levels in soybeans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13244064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T03:46:02Z","timestamp":1734407162000},"page":"4064","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Effectiveness of Differentiating Mold Levels in Soybeans with Electronic Nose Detection Technology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Xuejian","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing and Quality Safety of Heilongjiang Province, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lili","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing and Quality Safety of Heilongjiang Province, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongjie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing and Quality Safety of Heilongjiang Province, Daqing 163319, China"},{"name":"National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1633-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinhui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lixue","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.17-0156","article-title":"Composition, Distribution, and Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Compounds in 18 Soybean Cultivars","volume":"101","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzo, G., and Baroni, L. (2018). Soy, Soy Foods and Their Role in Vegetarian Diets. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10010043"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3515","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-017-0288-8","article-title":"Analysis of Multiple Soybean Phytonutrients by Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy","volume":"409","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2098","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1630598","article-title":"Biochemistry and Use of Soybean Isoflavones in Functional Food Development","volume":"60","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9465","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.6b03902","article-title":"Factors Affecting Tocopherol Concentrations in Soybean Seeds","volume":"64","author":"Carrera","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s00438-020-01704-7","article-title":"Genome-Wide Association Mapping for Protein, Oil and Water-Soluble Protein Contents in Soybean","volume":"296","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Genom."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, L., Farouk, M., Qin, G., Zhao, Y., and Bao, N. (2018). The Influences of Soybean Agglutinin and Functional Oligosaccharides on the Intestinal Tract of Monogastric Animals. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19020554"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molp.2020.03.002","article-title":"Toward a \u201cGreen Revolution\u201d for Soybean","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Plant"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2003.12.005","article-title":"Effect of Changing Temperature on the Deterioration of Soya Beans","volume":"87","author":"Sorour","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apradiso.2018.05.003","article-title":"Effects of Gamma Irradiation on Aflatoxin B1 Levels in Soybean and on the Properties of Soybean and Soybean Oil","volume":"139","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Radiat. Isot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2536","DOI":"10.1111\/pce.14128","article-title":"Changing Light Promotes Isoflavone Biosynthesis in Soybean Pods and Enhances Their Resistance to Mildew Infection","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plant Cell Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-024-02615-8","article-title":"Multi-Plug Filtration Purification Combined with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for the Simultaneous Determination of Pesticides, Veterinary Drugs, Mycotoxins, and Persistent Organic Pollutants in Livestock and Poultry Meat","volume":"17","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haq, I.U., Taj, R., Nafees, M., and Hussain, A. (2024). Mycotoxin Detection in Selected Medicinal Plants Using Chromatographic Techniques. Biomed. Chromatogr., 38.","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.5831"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00136-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00136-19","article-title":"Evaluation of a Novel Aspergillus Antigen Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay","volume":"57","author":"Dichtl","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3452","DOI":"10.1039\/D3AN00576C","article-title":"Application of ATP-Based Bioluminescence Technology in Bacterial Detection: A Review","volume":"148","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/08905436.2018.1547644","article-title":"Molecular Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Foods: The Case for Using PCR-DGGE","volume":"33","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2018.05.039","article-title":"Detection of Aspergillus spp. Contamination Levels in Peanuts by near Infrared Spectroscopy and Electronic Nose","volume":"93","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.01.001","article-title":"Monitoring Fungal Growth on Brown Rice Grains Using Rapid and Non-Destructive Hyperspectral Imaging","volume":"199","author":"Siripatrawan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.04.054","article-title":"Early Discrimination and Growth Tracking of Aspergillus spp. Contamination in Rice Kernels Using Electronic Nose","volume":"292","author":"Gu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Yuan, Y., Hong, B., Zhao, X., and Gu, Z. (2021). Characteristic Volatile Fingerprints of Four Chrysanthemum Teas Determined by HS-GC-IMS. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237113"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2012.08.086","article-title":"Electronic Nose and GC\u2013MS Analysis of Volatile Compounds in Tuber magnatum Pico: Evaluation of Different Storage Conditions","volume":"136","author":"Pennazza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coradi, P.C., Padia, C.L., Jaques, L.B.A., Souza, G.A.C.D., Lima, R.E., M\u00fcller, A., Teodoro, P.E., Steinhaus, J.I., and Carneiro, L.D.O. (2020). Adaptation of Technological Packaging for Conservation of Soybean Seeds in Storage Units as an Alternative to Modified Atmospheres. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241787"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.8b06808","article-title":"Changes in Phenolic Acid and Isoflavone Contents during Soybean Drying and Storage","volume":"67","author":"Ferreira","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandel, A., Mann, R., Kaur, J., Norton, S., Edwards, J., Spangenberg, G., and Sawbridge, T. (2021). Implications of Seed Vault Storage Strategies for Conservation of Seed Bacterial Microbiomes. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.784796"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2023.105407","article-title":"Non-Destructive Identification of Moldy Walnut Based on NIR","volume":"121","author":"An","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8423","DOI":"10.1007\/s11694-024-02811-4","article-title":"Early Identification of Aspergillus spp. in Vitro Based on HS-GC-IMS and Electronic Nose","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Meas."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.12.047","article-title":"Detection of Fungal Contamination of Cereal Grain Samples by an Electronic Nose","volume":"119","author":"Paolesse","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e563101523629","DOI":"10.33448\/rsd-v10i15.23629","article-title":"Rea\u00e7\u00e3o de Acessos Tradicionais de Feij\u00e3o Comum \u00e0 Colletotrichum Lindemuthianum","volume":"10","author":"Leite","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Soc. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1733","DOI":"10.1007\/s00217-022-04001-2","article-title":"Identification of Key Aroma-Active Compounds in Beef Tallow Varieties Using Flash GC Electronic Nose and GC \u00d7 GC-TOF\/MS","volume":"248","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Food Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, W., Liang, G., Tian, H., Sun, J., and Wan, C. (2019). Electronic Nose-Based Technique for Rapid Detection and Recognition of Moldy Apples. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201903.0008.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4247","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-017-0375-x","article-title":"Analysis of Listeria Using Exogenous Volatile Organic Compound Metabolites and Their Detection by Static Headspace\u2013Multi-Capillary Column\u2013Gas Chromatography\u2013Ion Mobility Spectrometry (SHS\u2013MCC\u2013GC\u2013IMS)","volume":"409","author":"Taylor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.126158","article-title":"Recent Progress in Food Flavor Analysis Using Gas Chromatography\u2013Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC\u2013IMS)","volume":"315","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6772","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.4302","article-title":"Real-time Mildew Detection and Gradation in Simulated Containerized Soybeans: Insights from GC-IMS Analysis of mVOCs and VOCs","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labanska, M., Van Amsterdam, S., Jenkins, S., Clarkson, J.P., and Covington, J.A. (2022). Preliminary Studies on Detection of Fusarium Basal Rot Infection in Onions and Shallots Using Electronic Nose. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145453"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2016). Food Safety National Standards for the Microbiological Examination of Foods to Determine the Total Fungal Colony Count in the Soybean Samples (Standard No. GB 4789.15-2016)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2018). The Detection of Stored Grain Fungi by the Spore Counting Method (Standard No. LS\/T6132-2018)."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.11.074","article-title":"A Novel Framework for Analyzing MOS E-Nose Data Based on Voting Theory: Application to Evaluate the Internal Quality of Chinese Pecans","volume":"242","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4220","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.11061","article-title":"Early Identification of Aspergillus spp. Contamination in Milled Rice by E-nose Combined with Chemometrics","volume":"101","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2021.108658","article-title":"Characterisation of Flavour Profile of Beef Jerky Inoculated with Different Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria Using Electronic Nose and Gas Chromatography\u2013Ion Mobility Spectrometry","volume":"183","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, S., Chen, W., Wang, Z., and Wang, J. (2021). Rapid Determination of Potential Aflatoxigenic Fungi Contamination on Peanut Kernels during Storage by Data Fusion of HS-GC-IMS and Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Postharvest Biol. Technol., 171.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.postharvbio.2020.111361"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2021.116435","article-title":"Recent Development of HS-GC-IMS Technology in Rapid and Non-Destructive Detection of Quality and Contamination in Agri-Food Products","volume":"144","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4501","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.1c00564","article-title":"Molecular Background of a Moldy-Musty Off-Flavor in Cocoa","volume":"69","author":"Porcelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"224","article-title":"Rapid Detection of Moldy Maize Based on Gas Sensor Array","volume":"40","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Food Ind."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"297","article-title":"Recognition of Harmful Fungal Species and Quantitative Detection of Fungal Contamination in Peanuts Based on Electronic Nose Technology","volume":"32","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/13\/24\/4064\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:53:29Z","timestamp":1760115209000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/13\/24\/4064"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["foods13244064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods13244064","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]}}}