{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T05:08:52Z","timestamp":1772514532137,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The objectives of this work were as follows: (i) the evaluation of the prevalence of detection of genetic material of Coxiella burnetii in the bulk tank milk of sheep and goat farms in Greece and (ii) the investigation of variables related to the management applied in farms as possible predictors for this. The presence of C. burnetii genetic material was studied in the bulk tank milk of 325 sheep and 119 goat farms throughout the country. For qualitative and quantitative identification of the genetic material of the pathogen, a commercially available real-time PCR was used. In total, 45 parameters were assessed for potential association with the detection of the pathogen: these referred to the management system, infrastructure, health management, animals, production characteristics, and human resources on the farms. Genetic material of the pathogen was detected in bulk tank milk samples from nine sheep (2.8%) and six goat (5.0%) farms. Genetic material was at significantly higher median concentrations in samples from goat farms than from sheep farms, 1,078,096 (min: 181,121, max: 2,331,386) versus 15,728 (min: 507, max: 505,852) GE mL\u22121, respectively. For sheep farms, the intensive or semi-intensive management system applied in farms (p = 0.003), and for goat farms, the intensive or semi-intensive management system applied in farms (p = 0.0007) and the smaller number of annual veterinary visits to farms (p = 0.044) emerged as significant predictors. Among sheep farms managed under the intensive or semi-intensive system, the lack of accessory barns on farms (p = 0.024) emerged as a significant predictor; no significant predictor could be found among goat farms under such management systems. There was no significant difference in production outcomes between farms in which C. burnetii was or was not detected in the bulk tank milk; also, there was no association between the detection of C. burnetii and the annual incidence rate of cases of abortion on the farms. The results suggest that the risk of transfer of C. burnetii to dairy products from sheep and goat milk appears to be small, but not negligible, which indicates that the pasteurization of milk from small ruminants must be carried out consistently and correctly to ensure the safety of the product.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14030460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T05:08:26Z","timestamp":1738300106000},"page":"460","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Detection of Coxiella burnetii in Bulk Tank Milk of Dairy Small Ruminant Farms in Greece"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Daphne T.","family":"Lianou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1842-5432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Themistoklis","family":"Giannoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Animal Science, University of Thessaly, 41110 Larissa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Charalambia K.","family":"Michael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, European University of Cyprus, Engomi, 2404 Nicosia, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natalia G. C.","family":"Vasileiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Animal Science, University of Thessaly, 41110 Larissa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Efthymia","family":"Petinaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hospital of Larissa, 41110 Larissa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9533-0093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angeliki I.","family":"Katsafadou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public and One Health, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antonis P.","family":"Politis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9229-3151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitris A.","family":"Gougoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4955-0460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasileios G.","family":"Papatsiros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2564-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elias","family":"Papadopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7578-4984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolaos","family":"Solomakos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eleni I.","family":"Katsarou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2353-0835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasia S.","family":"Mavrogianni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1400-7599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitri\u03bfs C.","family":"Chatzopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public and One Health, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George C.","family":"Fthenakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/169195a0","article-title":"Experimental and natural infections of birds by Coxiella burnetii","volume":"169","author":"Babudieri","year":"1952","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2005010","article-title":"Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis?","volume":"36","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2015.07.011","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii infections in sheep or goats: An opinionated review","volume":"181","author":"Roest","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.12.4.518","article-title":"Q fever","volume":"12","author":"Maurin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2003017","article-title":"Experimental Coxiella burnetii infection in pregnant goats: Excretion routes","volume":"34","author":"Souriau","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"908","article-title":"Abortion and stillbirth among dairy goats as a consequence of Coxiella burnetii","volume":"132","author":"Wouda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tijdschr. Diergeneeskd."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2017.11.004","article-title":"Q fever and prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in milk","volume":"71","author":"Pexara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, Q., Jamil, T., Saqib, M., Iqbal, M., and Neubauer, H. (2022). Q Fever\u2014A Neglected Zoonosis. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10081530"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2015.11.004","article-title":"Analysis of Q fever in Dutch dairy goat herds and assessment of control measures by means of a transmission model","volume":"123","author":"Bontje","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pract. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12778","article-title":"Q fever through consumption of unpasteurised milk and milk products\u2014A risk profile and exposure assessment","volume":"118","author":"Gale","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1504.081612","article-title":"Multigenotype Q fever outbreak, the Netherlands","volume":"15","author":"Klaassen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2015.08.008","article-title":"Pulmonary inflammatory pseudotumor due to Coxiella burnetii. Case report and literature review","volume":"17","author":"Polo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sireci, G., Badami, G.D., Di Liberto, D., Blanda, V., Grippi, F., Di Paola, L., Guercio, A., de la Fuente, J., and Torina, A. (2021). Recent advances on the innate immune response to Coxiella burnetii. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.754455"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.03.001","article-title":"Screening of various foodstuffs for occurrence of Coxiella burnetii in Switzerland","volume":"116","author":"Fretz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2008-1672","article-title":"Investigation of Coxiella burnetii occurrence in dairy sheep flocks by bulk-tank milk analysis and antibody level determination","volume":"92","author":"Astobiza","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.100304","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii in bulk tank milk samples from dairy goat and dairy sheep farms in The Netherlands in 2008","volume":"170","author":"Luttikholt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.15567\/mljekarstvo.2015.0104","article-title":"Detection of Coxiella burnetii in cows\u2019, goats\u2019, and ewes\u2019 bulk milk samples using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)","volume":"65","author":"Can","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mljekarstvo"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jodelko, A., Szymanska-Czerwinska, M., Rola, J.G., and Niemczuk, K. (2021). Molecular detection of Coxiella burnetii in small ruminants and genotyping of specimens collected from goats in Poland. BMC Vet. Res., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-03051-0"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basanisi, M.G., La Bella, G., Nobili, G., Raele, D.A., Cafiero, M.A., Coppola, R., Damato, A.M., Fraccalvieri, R., Sottili, R., and La Salandra, G. (2022). Detection of Coxiella burnetii DNA in sheep and goat milk and dairy products by droplet digital PCR in south Italy. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 366.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109583"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.24099\/vet.arhiv.1866","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii occurrence in dairy herds in Gabrovo Region, Bulgaria, evaluated by serological and molecular analyses of bulk-tank milk samples","volume":"93","author":"Simeonov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Arhiv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-024-10389-x","article-title":"Molecular evidence of sporadic Coxiella burnetii excretion in sheep milk, central Portugal","volume":"48","author":"Pires","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Comm."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"83","article-title":"The socio-economics of sheep and goat farming in Greece and the implications for future rural development","volume":"39","author":"Hadjigeorgiou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. M\u00e9diterran. B Etud. Recherch."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6715","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-14015","article-title":"Current production trends, farm structures, and economics of the dairy sheep and goat sector","volume":"101","author":"Pulina","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Hellenic Statistical Authority (2023, May 25). Farm Structure Surveys. Available online: https:\/\/www.statistics.gr."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Hellenic Agricultural Organization \u2018Demeter\u2019 (2024, November 11). Delivered Quantities and Number of Producers of Sheep\/Goat Milk for the Year 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.elgo.gr\/images\/ELOGAK_files\/Statistics\/ELGO_STATS\/1.\u0395\u039b\u0393O_STATS_\u03a0A\u03a1A\u0394_\u03a0O\u03a3__\u03a0A\u03a1A\u0393_\u03a0\u03a1O\u0392\u0395\u0399O\u03a5_\u0393\u0399\u0394\u0399\u039dO_A\u039dA_\u039dO\u039cO__\u039cH\u039dA_2023.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture, Hellenic Republic (1994). Recognition of protected designation of origin of cheese \u2018Feta\u2019. Ministerial decree 313025\/11.01.1994. Governm. Gaz. Hell. Repub. B, 8, 51\u201352."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Anon (2024, November 12). Increase in Feta Exports. Available online: https:\/\/www.enikonomia.gr\/economy\/afxisi-stis-exagoges-fetas-ti-deichnou\/574665\/."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food (2024, October 25). Specifications for Arseniko Naxou Cheese, Available online: https:\/\/www.minagric.gr\/images\/stories\/docs\/agrotis\/POP-PGE\/prodiagrafes_arsenikou_naxou.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2004.70.540","article-title":"Q fever in children in Greece","volume":"70","author":"Maltezou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2021). The European Union One Health 2019 zoonoses report. EFSA J., 19, 6406.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2021.6406"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lianou, D.T. (2023). Mapping the Small Ruminant Industry in Greece: Health Management and Diseases of Animals, Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Therapeutics, Reproductive Performance, Production Outcomes, Veterinary Public Health, Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Farmers. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Thessaly]."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Satter, S. (2024, November 18). Structured Questionnaire: Definition, Types + Pros & Cons. Available online: https:\/\/www.questionpro.com\/blog\/structured-questionnaire\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2014). Scientific opinion on the welfare risks related to the farming of sheep for wool, meat and milk production. EFSA J., 12, 3933\u20134060.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2014.3933"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2016.12.042","article-title":"Use of geographical information system and ecological niche model to analyse potential exposure of small ruminants to Coxiella burnetii infection in Central Greece","volume":"147","author":"Valiakos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5352","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2006-815","article-title":"Comparison of Coxiella burnetii shedding in milk of dairy bovine, caprine, and ovine herds","volume":"90","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bauer, B., Pr\u00fcfer, L., Walter, M., Ganter, I., Frangoulidis, D., Runge, M., and Ganter, M. (2020). Comparison of C. burnetii excretion between sheep and goats naturally infected with one cattle-associated genotype. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9080652"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sargison, N. (2008). Sheep Flock Health A Planned Approach, Blackwell Science.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444302592"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Martin, W.B., and Aitken, I.D. (2000). Other infectious causes of abortion. Diseases of Sheep, Blackwell. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"National Animal Disease Information Service (2024, November 01). Q Fever in Sheep. Available online: https:\/\/www.nadis.org.uk\/disease-a-z\/sheep\/q-fever-in-sheep\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Winter, A.L. (2022). Coxiellosis in animals. MSD Manual Veterinary Manual, Merck & Co.. Available online: https:\/\/www.msdvetmanual.com\/infectious-diseases\/coxiellosis\/coxiellosis-in-animals."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2024, November 01). Q Fever, Available online: https:\/\/www.woah.org\/en\/disease\/q-fever\/#:~:text=is%20Q%20fever%3F-,Q%20fever%20is%20a%20widespread%20disease%20caused%20by%20the%20bacteria,animals%20that%20can%20infect%20humans."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nusinovici, S., Madouasse, A., Hoch, T., Guatteo, R., and Beaudeau, F. (2015). Evaluation of two PCR tests for Coxiella burnetii detection in dairy cattle farms using latent class analysis. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144608"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warrier, I., Hicks, L.D., Battisti, J.M., Raghavan, R., and Minnick, M.F. (2014). Identification of novel small RNAs and characterization of the 6S RNA of Coxiella burnetii. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100147"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ledda, S., Santucciu, C., Chisu, V., and Masala, G. (2020). Validation of a novel commercial ELISA test for the detection of antibodies against Coxiella burnetii. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9121075"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00900.x","article-title":"\u2018Real-time\u2019 PCR based detection of Coxiella burnetii using conventional techniques","volume":"64","author":"Frangoulidis","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2008.112797","article-title":"The MIQE Guidelines: Minimum information for publication of quantitative real-time PCR experiments","volume":"55","author":"Bustin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panning, M., Kilwinski, J., Greiner-Fischer, S., Peters, M., Kramme, S., Frangoulidis, D., Meyer, H., Henning, K., and Drosten, C. (2008). High throughput detection of Coxiella burnetii by real-time PCR with internal control system and automated DNA preparation. BMC Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-8-77"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2024.105655","article-title":"Molecular and genotyping techniques in diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii: An overview","volume":"123","author":"Khademi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Gen. Evol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roest, H.J., van Gelderen, B., Dinkla, A., Frangoulidis, D., van Zijderveld, F.G., Rebel, J., and van Keulen, L. (2012). Q fever in pregnant goats: Pathogenesis and excretion of Coxiella burnetii. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048949"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15229","article-title":"Management of Coxiella burnetii infection in livestock populations and the associated zoonotic risk: A consensus statement","volume":"32","author":"Plummer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-55-13","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii associated reproductive disorders in domestic animals\u2014A critical review","volume":"55","author":"Agerholm","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2192","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2212.161236","article-title":"Detection and genotyping of Coxiella burnetii in pigs, South Korea, 2014\u20132015","volume":"22","author":"Seo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068129","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1068129","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii in ticks, livestock, pets and wildlife: A mini-review","volume":"9","author":"Celina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fr. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrara, G., Pagnini, U., Improda, E., Iovane, G., and Montagnaro, S. (2024). Pigs in southern Italy are exposed to three ruminant pathogens: An analysis of seroprevalence and risk factors analysis study. BMC Vet. Res., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-024-04037-4"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1603\/ME12266","article-title":"A new species of Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodidae), a parasite of Red River hogs and domestic pigs in the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"50","author":"Apanaskevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.K., Zhang, X.Y., and Liu, J.Z. (2019). Ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea) in China: Geographical distribution, host diversity, and specificity. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol., 102.","DOI":"10.1002\/arch.21544"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2023.102285","article-title":"High-throughput screening of pathogens in Ixodes ricinus removed from hosts in Lombardy, northern Italy","volume":"15","author":"Melis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638711434943","article-title":"Comparison of Q fever serology methods in cattle, goats, and sheep","volume":"24","author":"Emery","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.2478\/jvetres-2019-0070","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Q fever in sheep and goats from the Marmara region, Turkey","volume":"63","author":"Karagul","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2005.05.002","article-title":"Human Mycobacterium bovis infection in the United Kingdom: Incidence, risks, control measures and review of the zoonotic aspects of bovine tuberculosis","volume":"86","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tuberculosis"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1803.111370","article-title":"Nonpasteurized dairy products, disease outbreaks, and state laws-United States, 1993\u20132006","volume":"18","author":"Langer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Inf. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wittwer, M., Hammer, P., Runge, M., Valentin-Weigand, P., Neubauer, H., Henning, K., and Mertens-Scholz, K. (2022). Inactivation kinetics of Coxiella burnetii during high-temperature short-time pasteurization of milk. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.753871"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.47.6.695","article-title":"Pasteurization of milk containing the organism of Q fever","volume":"47","author":"Enright","year":"1957","journal-title":"Am. J. Pub. Health"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"137","article-title":"Natural resistance of Coxiella","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Smithers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Encyclopedia of Food Safety"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268806005978","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii and milk pasteurization: An early application of the precautionary principle?","volume":"134","author":"Cerf","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/3\/460\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:24:44Z","timestamp":1760027084000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/3\/460"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["foods14030460"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods14030460","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]}}}