{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,13]],"date-time":"2026-11-13T23:41:27Z","timestamp":1794613287232,"version":"4.9.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and the State Research Agency","award":["PID2020-115871RB-I00,"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2020-115871RB-I00,"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and the State Research Agency","award":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Universidades and the European Union-NextGeneration EU","award":["PID2020-115871RB-I00,"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2020-115871RB-I00,"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Universidades and the European Union-NextGeneration EU","award":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study assessed the cytotoxicity of the individual and combined exposure to the fungicide azoxystrobin (AZX) and the three common mycotoxins found in food: ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T-2 toxin. Cytotoxic effects were evaluated using the resazurin and MTT assays in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells after 24 h of exposure, and the type of interaction between the compounds was determined using the isobologram method. Results showed that T-2 was the most cytotoxic compound, followed by DON, OTA, and AZX. The compound ratios in the mixture were calculated using three sublethal concentrations (IC50\/2, IC50\/4, and IC50\/8) to achieve equal toxicity for each compound. Interaction analysis revealed that the nature of the interaction varied across components and concentrations. The AZX and DON mixture produced an antagonistic effect at all the analyzed effect levels. AZX and OTA or T2 mixtures, and tertiary combinations displayed antagonism at low effect values but additivity at high effect levels. Importantly, the quaternary mixture demonstrated synergism at all the effect levels. These findings highlight that the co-occurrence of fungicides and mycotoxins in food commodities can lead to complex exposure scenarios that may result in combined toxic effects on the organism.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14071226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T03:24:58Z","timestamp":1743477898000},"page":"1226","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Combined Cytotoxic Effects of the Fungicide Azoxystrobin and Common Food-Contaminating Mycotoxins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0589-6550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Fuentes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute of Food Engineering\u2013FoodUPV, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Camino de Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5391-870X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronica","family":"Zingales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8487-7114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Manuel","family":"Barat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute of Food Engineering\u2013FoodUPV, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Camino de Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4174-6688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda-Jos\u00e9","family":"Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, P.K. (2014). Chapter 24\u2014Herbicides and Fungicides BT\u2014Biomarkers in Toxicology. Biomarkers in Toxicology, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-404630-6.00024-5"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2024, September 17). FAOSTAT. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/faostat\/en\/#data\/RP."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, September 16). MarketsandMarkets Fungicides Market Size & Share, Trends and Forecast 2027. 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