{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T22:16:24Z","timestamp":1791324984412,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ARS-YAR China","award":["BK20220492"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20220492"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20220492"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20220492"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Yak meat jerky, a traditional high-protein food commonly consumed in high-altitude regions, is often produced via air-drying, which may adversely affect its nutritional quality and digestibility. This study systematically compared the gastrointestinal digestion profiles of air-dried yak meat (ADM) and vacuum freeze-dried yak meat (VFDM) using a dynamic in vitro human stomach\u2013intestine (DHSI-IV) system. Key digestive parameters, including gastric emptying kinetics, particle size distribution, and protein hydrolysis, were evaluated under physiologically relevant conditions. VFDM exhibited superior hydration capacity, contributing to delayed gastric emptying of the mixed solid\u2013liquid phase (t1\/2 = 85.1 \u00b1 1.0 min) compared to ADM (t1\/2 = 80.4 \u00b1 1.2 min), indicating increased gastric satiety. Conversely, VFDM showed a faster solid-phase gastric emptying (t1\/2 = 107.2 \u00b1 0.8 min) relative to ADM (t1\/2 = 113.1 \u00b1 2.7 min), likely due to improved texture and rehydration. Both jerky types exhibited progressive particle disintegration; by 180 min, large particles (&gt;2.0 mm) decreased to 16.88% \u00b1 2.63% in ADM and 20.04% \u00b1 0.64% in VFDM (p &gt; 0.05). Protein digestibility, measured by SDS-PAGE and the degree of hydrolysis (DH), was significantly higher in VFDM (38.5 \u00b1 3.6%) than in ADM (34.0 \u00b1 0.1%, p &lt; 0.05), with VFDM demonstrating more rapid and extensive protein degradation across gastric and intestinal phases. These improvements may be attributed to the porous microstructure and reduced processing-induced protein cross-linking in VFDM, facilitating enhanced enzyme access. Overall, vacuum freeze-drying substantially improved yak jerky protein digestibility, offering the potential for the development of meat-based functional foods targeted at individuals with compromised gastrointestinal function.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14122086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T09:51:24Z","timestamp":1749808284000},"page":"2086","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Comparative Gastrointestinal Digestion Dynamics of Air-Dried and Freeze-Dried Yak Jerky: Insights from a Dynamic In Vitro Human Stomach\u2013Intestine (DHSI-IV) System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Bei","family":"Xue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Medical Research Center for Plateau Gastroenterological Disease of Xizang Autonomous Region, and School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang 712082, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhendong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Science College, Xizang Agriculture and Animal Husbandry University, Nyingchi 860000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiling","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Science College, Xizang Agriculture and Animal Husbandry University, Nyingchi 860000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yubing","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Medical Research Center for Plateau Gastroenterological Disease of Xizang Autonomous Region, and School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang 712082, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yidan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Medical Research Center for Plateau Gastroenterological Disease of Xizang Autonomous Region, and School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang 712082, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingjing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiao Dong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3339-4179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2024.101839","article-title":"Arginine as a Regulator of Antioxidant and Gel Formation in Yak Myofibrillar Proteins: Efficacy and Mechanistic Insights","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Zhao, X., Laghi, L., Jiang, X., Tang, J., Du, X., Zhu, C., and Picone, G. (2024). Insights into the Flavor Profile of Yak Jerky from Different Muscles Based on Electronic Nose, Electronic Tongue, Gas Chromatography\u2013Mass Spectrometry and Gas Chromatography\u2013Ion Mobility Spectrometry. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13182911"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.136188","article-title":"Effects of Different Cooking Methods on Physicochemical, Textural Properties of Yak Meat and Its Changes with Intramuscular Connective Tissue during in Vitro Digestion","volume":"422","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2020.108348","article-title":"High-Throughput Sequencing Approach to Reveal the Bacterial Diversity of Traditional Yak Jerky from the Tibetan Regions","volume":"172","author":"Wen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2022.114298","article-title":"Effects of NaCl Curing and Subsequent Fermentation with Lactobacillus sakei or Lactobacillus plantarum on Protein Hydrolysis and Oxidation in Yak Jerky","volume":"173","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2024.109570","article-title":"Effects of Different Drying Methods on Physicochemical, Textural, Flavor, and Sensory Characteristics of Yak Jerky","volume":"216","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2020.105345","article-title":"Ultrasound-Assisted Thawing of Frozen White Yak Meat: Effects on Thawing Rate, Meat Quality, Nutrients, and Microstructure","volume":"70","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1111\/jtxs.12780","article-title":"Effects of Thermal Processing and Temperature on the Quality, Protein Oxidation, and Structural Characteristics of Yak Meat","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Texture Stud."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2011.577540","article-title":"Protein Oxidation: Basic Principles and Implications for Meat Quality","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2021.110984","article-title":"Oxidation of Myofibrillar Protein and Crosslinking Behavior during Processing of Traditional Air-Dried Yak (Bos grunniens) Meat in Relation to Digestibility","volume":"142","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.09.002","article-title":"Effect of Different Drying Methods on the Myosin Structure, Amino Acid Composition, Protein Digestibility and Volatile Profile of Squid Fillets","volume":"171","author":"Deng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"863","article-title":"Comparative Study of Three Drying Methods: Freeze, Hot Airassisted Freeze and Infrared-Assisted Freeze Modes","volume":"13","author":"Antal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agron. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.140437","article-title":"The Impacts of Freeze-Drying-Induced Stresses on the Quality of Meat and Aquatic Products: Mechanisms and Potential Solutions to Acquire High-Quality Products","volume":"459","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.137310","article-title":"The Physicochemical Properties, Functionality, and Digestibility of Hempseed Protein Isolate as Impacted by Spray Drying and Freeze Drying","volume":"433","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, B.-S., Oh, B.-J., Lee, J.-H., Yoon, Y.S., and Lee, H.-I. (2020). Effects of Various Drying Methods on Physicochemical Characteristics and Textural Features of Yellow Croaker (Larimichthys polyactis). Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9020196"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10424","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.4598","article-title":"Effect of the Freeze-Drying Preservation Process on Some Quality Attributes of Pork Meat (Longissimus Thoracis)","volume":"12","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5849","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.11934","article-title":"Sodium Caseinate Enhances the Effect of Konjac Flour on Delaying Gastric Emptying Based on a Dynamic In Vitro Human STOMACH-IV (DIVHS-IV) System","volume":"102","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.13886","article-title":"Differential Regulation of Physicochemical Properties and Myofibrillar Protein Degradation of Yak Meat by Interactions between Reactive Oxygen Species and Reactive Nitrogen Species during Postmortem Aging","volume":"105","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2017.1315362","article-title":"Correlation between in Vitro and in Vivo Data on Food Digestion. What Can We Predict with Static in Vitro Digestion Models?","volume":"58","author":"Bohn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Dong, W., Tian, C., Zhao, Y., and Li, Y. (2024). Evaluation of Gastric Digestion Behavior of Protein Sports Supplements by In Vitro Dynamic Gastrointestinal Digestion Model. Preprints.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.0654.v1"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-018-0119-1","article-title":"INFOGEST Static in Vitro Simulation of Gastrointestinal Food Digestion","volume":"14","author":"Brodkorb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2022.111054","article-title":"In Vitro Gastric Digestion and Emptying of Tsampa under Simulated Elderly and Young Adult Digestive Conditions Using a Dynamic Stomach System","volume":"327","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2024.110665","article-title":"Comparative Efficacy of Amino Acid Availability and Peptidomic Analysis of Alternative Proteins from Different Sources under Dynamic in Vitro Protein Digestion","volume":"159","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2024.110676","article-title":"High Moisture Extrusion of Pulse Proteins: Texture, Structure, and in Vitro Digestion Characteristics of Extrudates","volume":"159","author":"Zang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2914","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO02586J","article-title":"An Advanced near Real Dynamic in Vitro Human Stomach System to Study Gastric Digestion and Emptying of Beef Stew and Cooked Rice","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(76)80010-8","article-title":"Measurement of Gastric Functions During Digestion of Ordinary Solid Meals in Man","volume":"70","author":"Malagelada","year":"1976","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO01293A","article-title":"A Standardised Semi-Dynamic in Vitro Digestion Method Suitable for Food\u2014An International Consensus","volume":"11","author":"Egger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1177\/026119299502300205","article-title":"A Multicompartmental Dynamic Computer-Controlled Model Simulating the Stomach and Small Intestine","volume":"23","author":"Minekus","year":"1995","journal-title":"Altern. Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodqual.2007.01.010","article-title":"Particle Size Distribution in the Food Bolus after Mastication of Natural Foods","volume":"18","author":"Woda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Qual. Prefer."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.134365","article-title":"Impact of Elderly Gastrointestinal Alterations on Gastric Emptying and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Skim Milk: An in Vitro Study Using a Dynamic Stomach System","volume":"402","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.29.1.85","article-title":"Biphasic Nature of Gastric Emptying","volume":"29","author":"Siegel","year":"1988","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2001.tb04614.x","article-title":"Improved Method for Determining Food Protein Degree of Hydrolysis","volume":"66","author":"Nielsen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO02993B","article-title":"Exploring in Vitro Release and Digestion of Commercial DHA Microcapsules from Algae Oil and Tuna Oil with Whey Protein and Casein as Wall Materials","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt0302-295","article-title":"Production of a Freeze-Thaw-Stable Potato Starch by Antisense Inhibition of Three Starch Synthase Genes","volume":"20","author":"Jobling","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2011.09.004","article-title":"Freeze\u2013Thaw Stability of Starches from Different Botanical Sources: Correlation with Structural Features","volume":"87","author":"Srichuwong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01307971","article-title":"Gastric Emptying of Varying Meal Weight and Composition in Man: Evaluation by Dual Liquid- and Solid-Phase Isotopic Method","volume":"26","author":"Moore","year":"1981","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E627","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2010.01856.x","article-title":"A Human Gastric Simulator (HGS) to Study Food Digestion in Human Stomach","volume":"75","author":"Kong","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2023.112828","article-title":"Real-Time Spatial Quantification of Gastric Acid Diffusion in Whey Protein Gels with Different NaCl Concentrations by Wide-Field Fluorescence Microscopy","volume":"169","author":"Dong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2022.107862","article-title":"Mechanistic Study on in Vitro Disintegration and Proteolysis of Whey Protein Isolate Gels: Effect of the Strength of Sodium Ions","volume":"132","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.5851\/kosfa.2017.37.5.682","article-title":"Evaluation of the Digestibility of Korean Hanwoo Beef Cuts Using the in Vitro Physicochemical Upper Gastrointestinal System","volume":"37","author":"Jeon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Food Sci. Anim. Resour."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2016.01.030","article-title":"Development of an Advanced in Vitro Model of the Stomach and Its Evaluation versus Human Gastric Physiology","volume":"88","author":"Bellmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6160","article-title":"Gastric Emptying Rate and Chyme Characteristics for Cooked Brown and White Rice Meals in Vivo: Gastric Emptying and Chyme Traits of Cooked Brown and White Rice in Vivo","volume":"93","author":"Bornhorst","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foostr.2021.100245","article-title":"In Vitro Gastric Digestion and Emptying of Cooked White and Brown Rice Using a Dynamic Human Stomach System","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Struct."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7596","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO01104E","article-title":"In Vitro Gastric Emptying Characteristics of Konjac Glucomannan with Different Viscosity and Its Effects on Appetite Regulation","volume":"11","author":"Shang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2016.06.010","article-title":"Different Physicochemical, Structural and Digestibility Characteristics of Myofibrillar Protein from PSE and Normal Pork before and after Oxidation","volume":"121","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2007.11.011","article-title":"Effect of Animal (Lamb) Diet and Meat Storage on Myofibrillar Protein Oxidation and in Vitro Digestibility","volume":"79","author":"Engel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2024.109550","article-title":"Effects of Eleutherine Bulbosa Extract on the Myofibrillar Protein Oxidation and Moisture Migration of Yak Meat under Oxidation Stress","volume":"215","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Meat Sci."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/12\/2086\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:51:27Z","timestamp":1760032287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/12\/2086"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["foods14122086"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods14122086","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]}}}