{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T17:35:12Z","timestamp":1790876112073,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tianjin Science and Technology Project","award":["22YFZCSN00240"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22YFZCSN00240"]}]},{"name":"Lvliang Science and Technology Project in Shanxi Province, China","award":["2023XDHZ06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023XDHZ06"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alcohols and esters are core flavor-active constituents of Qingxiangxing Baijiu (QXB), yet ethanol concentration\u2019s regulatory role in their thresholds and interactions remains unclear. Physicochemical analysis showed reduced-alcohol QXB (L-QX, 42%, v\/v) had higher total acid (1.48 g\/L) but lower total ester (1.52 g\/L) than high-alcohol QXB (H-QX, 53%, v\/v; 1.20 g\/L total acid, 2.05 g\/L total ester). Sensory evaluation (0\u20135 scale) revealed H-QX had higher fruity (3.6 vs. 2.0), grassy (3.2 vs. 1.8), and grainy (3.0 vs. 1.9) aroma scores, while L-QX showed higher sour (2.1 vs. 1.5) and lees (1.7 vs. 1.1) notes (p &lt; 0.05). The quantification of gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID) determined the concentrations of eight alcohols and esters in H-QX samples and identified that most flavor compounds had higher concentrations than L-QX samples. Three alternative forced-choice tests showed 53% ethanol elevated olfactory thresholds (OTs) of five compounds, with ethyl lactate (1.53-fold) and isopentanol (1.89-fold) vs. 42%. For 16 alcohol\u2013ester binary mixtures, 12 pairs had OT ratios (53% vs. 42%) &lt; 1, especially 3 pairs (e.g., n-propanol-ethyl acetate) &lt; 0.5. OAV\/S curve analyses indicated all 16 mixtures had masking effects, with 11 pairs stronger at 42%. Verification validated 53% ethanol mitigated masking, enhancing fruity\/grassy aromas by 38.1%\/25.0%. This study provides support for QXB dealcoholization flavor regulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14244290","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T16:19:02Z","timestamp":1765556342000},"page":"4290","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Impact of Alcohol Content on Alcohol\u2013Ester Interactions in Qingxiangxing Baijiu Through Threshold Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Huan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liuyan","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaixuan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianxu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lexuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lijuan","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liping","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology , Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2","article-title":"Taste changes and technological progress in Chinese liquor","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liquor. Mak"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y.Y., Zhang, H.Y., Zhang, H., Huang, J.H., Du, L.P., and Wang, J. (2025). Comprehensive investigation of grade-specific aroma signatures in nongxiangxing baijiu using flavoromics approaches. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14213781"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overview of the development of light-flavor Baijiu","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"China Brew."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"5","article-title":"Investigation on the flavor substance composition and formation causes of different aroma types of Chinese baijiu","volume":"52","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Liquor Mak."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2022). Terminology of Baijiu Industry (Standard No. GB\/T 15109\u20142021)."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"49","article-title":"Research on liquor flavor types & their flavoring characteristics","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Liquor.-Mak. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"232","article-title":"Progress in research on the flavor components of light-flavor baijiu","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Research progress on ethyl hexanoate-increasing and ethyl lactate-decreasing of Strong-Flavor Baijiu","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"China Brew."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Research progress on the aroma contribution and their regional characteristics of volatile compounds in Chinese strong-flavor baijiu","volume":"37","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Light Ind."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Research and application progress of \u201cEthyl caproate-increasing and ethyl lactate-decreasing\u201d in brewing of Chinese Luzhou-Flavor liquor","volume":"33","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Light Ind."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6936","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.7b01974","article-title":"Reduced production of higher alcohols by saccharomyces cerevisiae in red wine fermentation by simultaneously overexpressing BAT1 and deleting BAT2","volume":"65","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2007.12.008","article-title":"Defining maximum levels of higher alcohols in alcoholic beverages and surrogate alcohol products","volume":"50","author":"Lachenmeier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9529","DOI":"10.1021\/jf5018862","article-title":"Enzymes Extracted from apple peels have activity in reducing higher alcohols in Chinese liquors","volume":"62","author":"Han","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"264","article-title":"Analysis of key flavor components in xiaoqu mild-flavor Baijiu","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2024.102153","article-title":"Changes in flavor profile of Sauce-Flavor Baijiu: Perceptual interactions between 1-Propanol and aroma compounds","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1158\/1538-7755.ASGCR21-43","article-title":"Global burden of cancer in 2020 attributable to alcohol consumption: A population-based study","volume":"30","author":"Rumgay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.629","article-title":"Effect of ethanol on flavor perception of rum","volume":"6","author":"Ickes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s12078-017-9238-2","article-title":"Effects of ethanol on flavor perception in alcoholic beverages","volume":"10","author":"Ickes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosens. Percept."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.2740660108","article-title":"Agglomeration of ethyl esters in model spirit solutions and malt whiskies","volume":"66","author":"Conner","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8504","DOI":"10.1021\/jf4018405","article-title":"Study of sensory interactions among red wine fruity esters in a model solution","volume":"61","author":"Lytra","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"146","article-title":"Based on the analysis of physicochemical indicators and sensory evaluation of characteristic liquor samples","volume":"52","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Liquor Mak."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"80","article-title":"Quality and flavor sensory analysis of commercially available chi-flavored liquor","volume":"15","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Saf. Qual."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"92","article-title":"Variation Patterns of total esters and total acids during storage of Luzhou-Flavor baijiu","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Liquor. Mak."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"66","article-title":"Characterization of volatile compounds in high-quality low-alcohol and high-alcohol strong-aroma type Baijiu","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Ferment. Ind."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"54","article-title":"Effect of different treatment methods on the quality of low-alcohol Qingxiang Baijiu","volume":"5","author":"Luo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Liquor.-Mak. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.142506","article-title":"Characterization of aroma differences in Jiangxiangxing Baijiu with varying ethanol concentrations: Emphasis on olfactory threshold changes of aroma compounds","volume":"469","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"17","article-title":"Comparison of flavor characteristics between low-alcohol and high-alcohol Wuliangye by using modern flavor chemistry technology","volume":"12","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Liquor.-Mak. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.108986","article-title":"Characterization of perceptual interactions among ester aroma compounds found in Chinese Moutai Baijiu by gas chromatography-olfactometry, odor intensity, olfactory threshold and odor activity value","volume":"131","author":"Niu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2022). Quality Requirements for Baijiu-Part 2: Qingxiangxing Baijiu (Standard No. GB\/T 10781.2\u20142022)."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021). National Food Safety Standard\u2014Determination of Total Acids in Foods (Standard No. GB12456-2021)."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2022). Method of Analysis for Baijiu (Standard No. GB10345-2022)."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1021\/jf503866x","article-title":"Enantioselective syntheses and sensory properties of 2-Methyl-tetrahydrofuran-3-thiol Acetates","volume":"63","author":"Dai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"65","article-title":"Application of electronic nose technology in distinguishing the strong-sauce-flavor aged baijiu","volume":"39","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"China Brew."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2024.110419","article-title":"Qingxiangxing baijiu sensory quality grade classification by 1 H NMR and GC combined with multivariate statistical analysis","volume":"162","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2017.12.017","article-title":"Simultaneous analysis of sugars and organic acids in wine and grape juices by HPLC: Method validation and characterization of products from northeast Brazil","volume":"66","author":"Coelho","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2022). Sensory analysis - Methodology - General Guidance for Measuring Odour, Flavour and Taste Detection Thresholds by a Three-Alternative Forced-Choice (3-AFC) Procedure (Standard No. GB\/T 22366-2022)."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3062516","article-title":"An Introduction to probability theory and its applications","volume":"11","author":"William","year":"1958","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Niu, Y.W., Zhu, Q., Xiao, Z.B., and Liu, Y. (2019). Method for Studying the Synergistic Effect of Ester Aroma in Maotai Liquor Based on OAV Method. (China Patent CN110133143A)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Xiao, Z.B., Yang, E.Q., Zhu, J.C., and Niu, Y.W. (2023). Method for Analyzing Odor Interactions Based on S-Shaped Curve Method. (China Patent CN116539808A)."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"206","article-title":"Main physicochemical quality indicators of base spirit of geographical indication product Yibin spirit","volume":"39","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, J.Y., Zheng, L., Zhao, J.L., Yu, M.H., Cao, R., Wang, D., Li, J., and Zhou, L.Y. (2024). Study on the effect of microwaved brewer\u2019s spent grains on the quality and flavor characteristics of bread. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13030461"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"65","article-title":"Flavor and sensory aAnalysis of Yulinquan Xiaoqu Qingxiang crude liquor and finished liquor","volume":"10","author":"A","year":"2024","journal-title":"Liquor.-Mak. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, J.L., Zheng, J., Zhao, D., Xu, Y., and Chen, S. (2025). The effect of ethanol on the compound thresholds and aroma perception in Chinese baijiu. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30040933"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13987","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.2c04321","article-title":"Evaluation of the perceptual interaction among ester odorants and nonvolatile organic acids in baijiu by GC-MS, GC-O, odor threshold, and sensory analysis","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.11.002","article-title":"Evaluation of the synergism among volatile compounds in Oolong Tea infusion by odour threshold with sensory analysis and E-nose","volume":"221","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5344\/ajev.1978.29.1.1","article-title":"Odor thresholds and interactions of ethyl acetate and diacetyl in an artificial wine medium","volume":"29","author":"Selfridge","year":"1978","journal-title":"Am. J. Enol. Vitic."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0350820","article-title":"Gas chromatography-olfactometry and chemical quantitative study of the aroma of six premium quality Spanish aged red wines","volume":"52","author":"Escudero","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodqual.2004.10.004","article-title":"Perception of wine fruity and woody notes: Influence of peri-threshold odorants","volume":"16","author":"Atanasova","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food. Qual. Prefer."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2018.01.018","article-title":"Sensory evaluation of the synergism among ester odorants in light aroma type liquor by odor threshold, aroma intensity and flash GC electronic nose","volume":"113","author":"Niu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/24\/4290\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T16:23:47Z","timestamp":1765556627000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/14\/24\/4290"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["foods14244290"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods14244290","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]]}}}