{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:36:24Z","timestamp":1785411384370,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]],"date-time":"2026-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775952000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32394041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32394041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32394041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32394041"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Corn, paddy, wheat, sorghum, and cassava serve as the primary energy sources in both human and animal diets. This study aimed to evaluate their nutrient release patterns in a simulated gastrointestinal environment and to assess the in vitro biological activity of the metabolites produced during digestion. The results showed that wheat exhibited the highest dry matter degradation in the stomach\u2013jejunum\u2013ileum digestion stage, while wheat and paddy showed the highest crude protein degradation compared with the other starch sources. In addition, wheat had a higher total free sugar concentration than paddy, sorghum, and cassava. Among the individual free sugars, such as D-sorbitol and D-(+)-trehalose, were found to have the highest concentrations in wheat, whereas cassava had the highest D(\u2212)-fructose concentration. Several differential metabolites, including valeric acid, caproic acid, octanoic acid, and azelaic acid were highly released in paddy, whereas glucaric acid, threonic acid, phenylacetic acid, and shikimic acid were highly released in cassava, and 4-hydroxycinnamic acid was highly released in paddy and sorghum. Four unique metabolites were identified during the digestion process of five starch sources. Particularly, isocitric acid and trans-Cinnamic acid were released only from cassava; caffeic acid was released only from sorghum and corn; and pimelic acid was released only from paddy and wheat. Furthermore, cassava was distinct from the other starch sources, displaying a higher abundance of differential metabolites within the glucagon signaling pathway as mapped in KEGG pathway analysis. In summary, compared with other starch sources, wheat provides more dry matter, protein, and sugars for the body. Cassava is unlikely to offer any advantage in glycemic regulation, while paddy and cassava possess stronger biological activity in terms of differential metabolites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15081339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T07:29:29Z","timestamp":1776065369000},"page":"1339","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative In Vitro Analysis of Five Starch Sources: Nutrient Release Patterns and Functional Effects in a Simulated Gastrointestinal Environment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Siyu","family":"Yi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0118-5708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Abul Kalam","family":"Azad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yexing","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weidong","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7145-4953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8034-6682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiangfeng","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"241\u2212250","article-title":"Prediction of net energy of feeds for broiler chickens","volume":"16","author":"Wongphatcharachai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anim. 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