{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T15:49:50Z","timestamp":1788536990058,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":182,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003453","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2026A1515011681"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026A1515011681"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003453","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increased global prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn\u2019s disease (CD), is a chronic relapsing inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract that creates a substantial socioeconomic burden. Existing pharmacotherapeutic treatments primarily target inflammatory signaling cascades and have disadvantages because of the side effects of drugs, reduced long-term efficacy, and high cost, necessitating the development of safe and sustainable adjunctive therapies. This review synthesizes mechanistic advances regarding dietary polysaccharides as bioactive agents that may have the capacity to induce remodeling of inflamed gastrointestinal tract in colitis and could be an adjunctive strategy as functional food ingredients due to their various biological activities in the management of colitis. Polysaccharides alleviate colitis through several interconnected pathways. First, they correct the gut dysbiosis by enriching beneficial taxa such as Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Akkermansia muciniphila. Second, fermentation of polysaccharides produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly butyrate, which serve as the primary energy source for colonocytes. Third, they restore intestinal barrier integrity by upregulating tight junction proteins such as ZO-1, occludin, and claudin, also performing pro-inflammatory cascade inhibition and elimination of oxidative stress via Nrf2\/HO-1 activation The relationship between structural properties of polysaccharides based on molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and biological functions of chemically modified dietary polysaccharides in colitis is studied. Dietary polysaccharides are explored here not as replacements for pharmacotherapy but as potential adjunctive or functional food-based interventions that may complement existing treatments as safe, multitargeted, and cost-effective interventions in prevention or long-term management of colitis and IBD. This review presents dietary polysaccharides function not as passive dietary fibers but as bioactive, multi-targeted, structurally dependent agents capable of restoring intestinal homeostasis, suggesting them as potentially safe, adjunctive interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15132267","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T03:20:21Z","timestamp":1782357621000},"page":"2267","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Gastrointestinal Tract Remodeling by Dietary Polysaccharides Mechanistic Insights in Colitis\u2014A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9710-0101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Afifa","family":"Aziz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety,    Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Prefabricated Seafood Processing and Quality Control, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3405-9938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Zeeshan","family":"Adil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7270-1358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muqadas","family":"Altaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety,    Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Prefabricated Seafood Processing and Quality Control, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8866-6547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Min","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Coastal Agriculture Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8380-0123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kit-Leong","family":"Cheong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety,    Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Prefabricated Seafood Processing and Quality Control, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"},{"name":"College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"45","article-title":"An overview of the advantageous effects and underlying mechanisms of natural polysaccharides in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"24","author":"Shao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chin. J. Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Huang, Q., Long, J., and Li, J. (2025). Microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease: The dual effect mechanism of polysaccharide therapy. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1666866"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5680","DOI":"10.1039\/D3FO04919A","article-title":"Research progress in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease with natural polysaccharides and related structure\u2013activity relationships","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1039\/D3FO03412G","article-title":"A critical review on intestinal mucosal barrier protection effects of dietary polysaccharides","volume":"15","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2025.105074","article-title":"Dietary polysaccharides as gut health regulators: Structural characteristics and regulatory mechanism","volume":"161","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.09.244","article-title":"Structural characterization of a galacturonic acid-rich polysaccharide from Ziziphus Jujuba cv. Muzao","volume":"147","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.116","article-title":"Evaluation studies on effects of quercetin with different concentrations on the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of Tartary buckwheat starch","volume":"163","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.144836","article-title":"Polygonati kingianum polysaccharide alleviates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis by modulating gut microbiota and metabolic homeostasis","volume":"316","author":"Fan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, Z.-H., Xie, W.-Y., Zhao, P.-S., Ren, W.-Z., Jin, H.-J., and Yuan, B. (2024). Kombucha polysaccharide alleviates DSS-induced colitis in mice by modulating the gut microbiota and remodeling metabolism pathways. Front. Microbiomes, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/frmbi.2024.1341824"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.130822","article-title":"Ginseng polysaccharides ameliorate ulcerative colitis via regulating gut microbiota and tryptophan metabolism","volume":"265","author":"Wan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.1c05966","article-title":"Protective Effects of Natural Polysaccharides on Intestinal Barrier Injury: A Review","volume":"70","author":"Huo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2025.124050","article-title":"Low molecular weight Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides alleviates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice","volume":"367","author":"Ye","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.126799","article-title":"Research progress of natural plant polysaccharides inhibiting inflammatory signaling pathways and regulating intestinal flora and metabolism to protect inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"253","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.145366","article-title":"Trends in polysaccharide-based hydrogels for skin anti-aging and skin antioxidant","volume":"319","author":"Cheong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalisz, G., and Popiolek-Kalisz, J. (2025). Polysaccharides: The sweet and bitter impacts on cardiovascular risk. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17030405"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-026-00750-6","article-title":"Polysaccharides and the colon mucus barrier: A review of biophysical interactions and functional impacts","volume":"10","author":"Cheong","year":"2026","journal-title":"npj Sci. Food"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derkacz, A., Olczyk, P., Olczyk, K., and Komosinska-Vassev, K. (2021). The role of extracellular matrix components in inflammatory bowel diseases. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10051122"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2021.08.010","article-title":"Chronic inflammation in ulcerative colitis causes long-term changes in goblet cell function","volume":"13","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0220122","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02201-22","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease-associated gut commensals degrade components of the extracellular matrix","volume":"13","author":"Porras","year":"2022","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-318936","article-title":"IBD prevalence in Lothian, Scotland, derived by capture\u2013recapture methodology","volume":"68","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e336","DOI":"10.3399\/bjgp17X690425","article-title":"Clinical features of bowel disease in patients aged <50 years in primary care: A large case-control study","volume":"67","author":"Stapley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Gen. Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/s12950-020-00246-4","article-title":"Ulcerative colitis: Understanding its cellular pathology could provide insights into novel therapies","volume":"17","author":"Kaur","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11582","article-title":"Host\u2013microbe interactions have shaped the genetic architecture of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"491","author":"Jostins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3264","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-58644-2","article-title":"Colonic epithelial-derived FGF1 drives intestinal stem cell commitment toward goblet cells to suppress inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"16","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krzystek-Korpacka, M., Kempi\u0144ski, R., Bromke, M., and Neubauer, K. (2020). Biochemical biomarkers of mucosal healing for inflammatory bowel disease in adults. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10060367"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domislovic, V., Mortensen, J.H., Lindholm, M., Kaarsdal, M.A., Brinar, M., Barisic, A., Manon-Jensen, T., and Krznaric, Z. (2022). Inflammatory biomarkers of extracellular matrix remodeling and disease activity in Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11195907"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izae066","article-title":"Intestinal stromal cells in the turmoil of inflammation and defective connective tissue remodeling in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"30","author":"Drygiannakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e53","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000000837","article-title":"Fecal matrix metalloprotease-9 and lipocalin-2 as biomarkers in detecting endoscopic activity in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"52","author":"Buisson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izae244","article-title":"Circulating extracellular matrix products as indicators of disease burden and predictors of disease course in ulcerative colitis","volume":"31","author":"Poulsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.149051","article-title":"From waste to wealth: A review of emerging approaches for utilizing dragon fruit (pitaya) waste polysaccharides in value-added bioproducts","volume":"334","author":"Cheong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300522","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202300522","article-title":"The Influence of Polysaccharides on Lipid Metabolism: Insights from Gut Microbiota","volume":"68","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s11224-009-9442-z","article-title":"Pectin, a versatile polysaccharide present in plant cell walls","volume":"20","author":"Voragen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Struct. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1755949","article-title":"Polysaccharides: Bowel health and gut microbiota","volume":"61","author":"Do","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.08.255","article-title":"Marine polysaccharides from Gelidium pacificum Okamura and Cereus sinensis reveal prebiotic functions","volume":"164","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2019.103641","article-title":"Attenuation of DSS induced colitis by Dictyophora indusiata polysaccharide (DIP) via modulation of gut microbiota and inflammatory related signaling pathways","volume":"64","author":"Kanwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2008.09.001","article-title":"Polysaccharides-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5391379","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5391379","article-title":"A review of isolation, chemical properties, and bioactivities of polysaccharides from Bletilla striata","volume":"2020","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12993","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.0c00277","article-title":"Biopolymer-based nanotechnology approaches to deliver bioactive compounds for food applications: A perspective on the past, present, and future","volume":"68","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benalaya, I., Alves, G., Lopes, J., and Silva, L.R. (2024). A review of natural polysaccharides: Sources, characteristics, properties, food, and pharmaceutical applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25021322"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Yan, L., Guo, S., Wen, L., Yu, M., Feng, L., and Jia, X. (2022). Structural elucidation, modification, and structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides in Chinese herbs: A review. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.908175"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2024.103693","article-title":"The nutritional function of active polysaccharides from marine animals: A review","volume":"58","author":"Guan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Biosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gan, L., Wang, J., and Guo, Y. (2022). Polysaccharides influence human health via microbiota-dependent and-independent pathways. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.1030063"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.37796\/2211-8039.1191","article-title":"Konjac glucomannan polysaccharide and inulin oligosaccharide ameliorate dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis and alterations in fecal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"11","author":"Changchien","year":"2021","journal-title":"BioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1346","article-title":"Protective Effect of Hedysari Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights on Ulcerative Colitis Mice","volume":"37","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23859","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.4c06435","article-title":"Kiwifruit polysaccharides alleviate ulcerative colitis via regulating gut microbiota-dependent tryptophan metabolism and promoting colon fucosylation","volume":"72","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"La, S., Abaidullah, M., Li, H., Cui, Y., Liu, B., and Shi, Y. (2025). Alfalfa polysaccharide alleviates colitis by regulating intestinal microbiota and the intestinal barrier against the TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u03baB pathway. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17183001"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1039\/D2FO02712G","article-title":"Gut microbiota mediates the anti-colitis effects of polysaccharides derived from Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye in mice","volume":"14","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5398","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-41738-5","article-title":"The potential probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus CNCM 1-3690 strain protects the intestinal barrier by stimulating both mucus production and cytoprotective response","volume":"9","author":"Chamignon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00833-7","article-title":"Microbiota-mediated colonization resistance: Mechanisms and regulation","volume":"21","author":"Pickard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.11.003","article-title":"Gut microbiota promotes stem cell differentiation through macrophage and mesenchymal niches in early postnatal development","volume":"55","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2018.12.018","article-title":"The short chain fatty acid butyrate imprints an antimicrobial program in macrophages","volume":"50","author":"Schulthess","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16731","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0804812105","article-title":"Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is an anti-inflammatory commensal bacterium identified by gut microbiota analysis of Crohn disease patients","volume":"105","author":"Sokol","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1934578X251407010","article-title":"A Review of Methods of Enhancing Polysaccharides for Drug Delivery Applications","volume":"20","author":"Vardhan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300368","DOI":"10.1002\/jssc.202300368","article-title":"Application of chromatography in purification and structural analysis of natural polysaccharides: A review","volume":"46","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sep. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.136471","article-title":"Monosaccharide composition and glycosidic linkages analysis by ultra high performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry\u2014Case study of plant polysaccharides","volume":"281","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, K., Cao, Y.-X., Jiao, S.-M., Du, G.-H., Du, Y.-G., and Qin, X.-M. (2020). Structural Characterization and Immune Activity Screening of Polysaccharides With Different Molecular Weights From Astragali Radix. Front. Pharmacol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.582091"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Peng, Y., Zhuang, Y., Wang, N., Jin, J., and Zhan, Z. (2023). Purification, Structural Analysis and Cardio-Protective Activity of Polysaccharides from Radix Astragali. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28104167"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, X., Zhao, X., Huang, J., Liu, H., and Hu, J. (2026). Comparative Study on the In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Three Plant-Derived Polysaccharides with Different Structural Compositions. Foods, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15010137"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.117516","article-title":"Study on a novel spherical polysaccharide from Fructus Mori with good antioxidant activity","volume":"256","author":"Chun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.121974","article-title":"Structural elucidation and immunomodulatory activities in vitro of type I and II arabinogalactans from different origins of Astragalus membranaceus","volume":"333","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheng, Z., Liu, J., and Yang, B. (2021). Structure Differences of Water Soluble Polysaccharides in Astragalus membranaceus Induced by Origin and Their Bioactivity. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10081755"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1093\/bbb\/zbaf086","article-title":"Therapeutic impact of polysaccharide from Chinese yam (Dioscorea opposita Thunb) on DSS-induced ulcerative colitis in mice","volume":"89","author":"Tan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.119436","article-title":"Structural characteristics of native and chemically sulfated polysaccharides from seaweed and their antimelanoma effects","volume":"289","author":"Mazepa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2023.121199","article-title":"Acetylation at the O-6 position of t-Glc improved immunoactivity of \u03b1-1,6-glucan from longan by additionally activating Dectin-1 and CD14 receptors","volume":"320","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J.-M., Sun, X.-Y., and Ouyang, J.-M. (2018). Structural Characterization, Antioxidant Activity, and Biomedical Application of Astragalus Polysaccharide Degradation Products. Int. J. Polym. Sci., 2018.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/5136185"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.230","article-title":"Polysaccharide from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi ameliorates colitis via suppressing NF-\u03baB signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome activation","volume":"132","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2023.108634","article-title":"Recent advances in polysaccharides from the genus Polygonatum: Isolation, structures, bioactivities, and application","volume":"140","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.135183","article-title":"Bioactive compounds from Polygonatum genus as anti-diabetic agents with future perspectives","volume":"408","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.12.034","article-title":"Mechanisms, evaluation, and management of chronic constipation","volume":"158","author":"Bharucha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.119299","article-title":"Synthesis, molecular features and biological activities of modified plant polysaccharides","volume":"289","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5890","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2025535","article-title":"Current advances in the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of natural polysaccharides","volume":"63","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, R., Jin, D., Fei, F., Xu, Z., Cao, B., and Li, J. (2023). Mushroom polysaccharides from Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray and Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilat ameliorated dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice by global modulation of systemic metabolism and the gut microbiota. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1172963"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valerio de Mello Braga, L.L., Schiebel, C.S., Sim\u00e3o, G., da Silva, K.S., Maia, M.H.d.S., Fernardes, A.C.V.U., Nascimento, G.E.D., Cordeiro, L.M.C., Issa, T.A., and Gois, M.B. (2025). Type I Arabinogalactan and Methyl-Esterified Homogalacturonan Polysaccharides from Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum cav.) Fruit Pulp Ameliorate DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18040461"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.14037","article-title":"Epimedium polysaccharides ameliorate ulcerative colitis by inhibiting oxidative stress and regulating autophagy","volume":"105","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1039\/D2FO02555H","article-title":"Polysaccharides from natural Cordyceps sinensis attenuated dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.130959","article-title":"Ameliorative effect of an acidic polysaccharide from Phellinus linteus on ulcerative colitis in a DSS-induced mouse model","volume":"265","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3919","DOI":"10.1007\/s12013-025-01765-8","article-title":"Glycyrrhiza pallidiflora Polysaccharide Ameliorates DSS-Induced Colitis by Protecting Intestinal Barrier Integrity","volume":"83","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2596","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.15330","article-title":"Intervention with the crude polysaccharides of Physalis pubescens L. mitigates colitis by preventing oxidative damage, aberrant immune responses, and dysbacteriosis","volume":"85","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30526-2","article-title":"Rhamnogalacturonan, a chemically-defined polysaccharide, improves intestinal barrier function in DSS-induced colitis in mice and human Caco-2 cells","volume":"8","author":"Nascimento","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70910","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.70910","article-title":"Homogalacturonan From Yellow Passion Fruit Peel Ameliorates Intestinal Injury in DSS-Induced Colitis in Mice","volume":"29","author":"Mazeti","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2024.2435535","article-title":"Protective role of polysaccharide from the roots of Millettia speciosa Champ in mice with ulcerative colitis induced by dextran sulphate sodium","volume":"40","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fyaf014","DOI":"10.1093\/fqsafe\/fyaf014","article-title":"Protective effect of Stropharia rugosoannulata polysaccharide and its derivatives on dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis","volume":"9","author":"Ye","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Qual. Saf."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9793","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO01468D","article-title":"Gut microbiota-dependent catabolites of tryptophan play a predominant role in the protective effects of turmeric polysaccharides against DSS-induced ulcerative colitis","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.133718","article-title":"Structural characterization of the glucan from Gastrodia elata Blume and its ameliorative effect on DSS-induced colitis in mice","volume":"275","author":"Tan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127335","article-title":"Bergamot polysaccharides relieve DSS-induced ulcerative colitis via regulating the gut microbiota and metabolites","volume":"253","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.124560","article-title":"Rhopilema esculentum polysaccharides enhance epithelial cell barrier in vitro and alleviate chronic colitis in mice","volume":"241","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.129346","article-title":"Alleviative effects of exopolysaccharides from Limosilactobacillus mucosae CCFM1273 against ulcerative colitis via modulation of gut microbiota and inhibition of Fas\/Fasl and TLR4\/NF-\u03baB pathways","volume":"260","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01965-5","article-title":"Eucommia ulmoides polysaccharide modified nano-selenium effectively alleviated DSS-induced colitis through enhancing intestinal mucosal barrier function and antioxidant capacity","volume":"21","author":"Ye","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11747","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO02708E","article-title":"Polysaccharides from Sargassum fusiforme after UV\/H2O2 degradation effectively ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3564","DOI":"10.1039\/D2FO03207D","article-title":"A special polysaccharide hydrogel coated on Brasenia schreberi: Preventive effects against ulcerative colitis via modulation of gut microbiota","volume":"14","author":"Wan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpha.2023.08.003","article-title":"Gut microbiome-based thiamine metabolism contributes to the protective effect of one acidic polysaccharide from Selaginella uncinata (Desv.) Spring against inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"14","author":"Hui","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Anal."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.125360","article-title":"Regulation strategy, bioactivity, and physical property of plant and microbial polysaccharides based on molecular weight","volume":"244","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2024.106027","article-title":"Preparation and structure characterization of a natural acetylated fructooligosaccharide from Polygonatum sibiricum and its alleviative effect on colitis by inhibiting NLRP3 pathway","volume":"113","author":"Ding","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, S., Cao, J., Chen, Y., Li, C., Wu, G., Zhu, K., Chen, X., Xu, F., Liu, Q., and Tan, L. (2022). Polysaccharides from Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (jackfruit) pulp improves intestinal barrier functions of high fat diet-induced obese rats. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.1035619"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, Z., Yuan, X., Liu, J., Shi, Z., Cao, L., Yang, L., Wu, K., Lou, Y., Tong, H., and Jiang, L. (2022). Albuca bracteata Polysaccharides Attenuate AOM\/DSS Induced Colon Tumorigenesis via Regulating Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Gut Microbiota in Mice. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.833077"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11676","DOI":"10.1039\/D2FO02377F","article-title":"Senegalia macrostachya seed polysaccharides attenuate inflammation-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction in a Caco-2 and RAW264.7 macrophage co-culture model by inhibiting the NF-\u03baB\/MLCK pathway","volume":"13","author":"Zongo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Ren, D., Tan, S., Qi, Y., and Sun, Y. (2022). Effects of Polysaccharide from Hericium Erinaceus on Diarrhea Rats Induced by Lincomycin Hydrochloride: A Potential Treatment for Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis. Res. Sq.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-1350856\/v1"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4126273","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4126273","article-title":"Panax quinquefolius Polysaccharides Ameliorate Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhoea Induced by Lincomycin Hydrochloride in Rats via the MAPK Signaling Pathways","volume":"2022","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2023.123090","article-title":"Inulin alleviates perfluorooctanoic acid-induced intestinal injury in mice by modulating the PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR signaling pathway","volume":"342","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.004","article-title":"Effect of inulin on pasting, thermal, rheological properties and in vitro digestibility of pea starch gel","volume":"193","author":"Ji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2023.100654","article-title":"Polydopamine-cladded montmorillonite micro-sheets as therapeutic platform repair the gut mucosal barrier of murine colitis through inhibiting oxidative stress","volume":"20","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.136487","article-title":"Comprehensive evaluation of Flammulina velutipes residues polysaccharide based on in vitro digestion and human fecal fermentation","volume":"281","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1615\/IntJMedMushrooms.2021038850","article-title":"Polysaccharides from shiitake culinary-medicinal mushroom Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes) suppress pMLKL-mediated necroptotic cell death and colitis in mice","volume":"23","author":"Alagbaoso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Mushrooms"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fshw.2022.07.065","article-title":"Artificial simulated saliva, gastric and intestinal digestion and fermentation in vitro by human gut microbiota of intrapolysaccharide from Paecilomyces cicadae TJJ1213","volume":"12","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Hum. Wellness"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.129756","article-title":"In vitro digestion and fecal fermentation of basidiospore-derived exopolysaccharides from Naematelia aurantialba","volume":"261","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2016.06.067","article-title":"Characteristics and bioactivities of different molecular weight polysaccharides from camellia seed cake","volume":"91","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.134003","article-title":"Gut microbial fermentation promotes the intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese yam polysaccharides","volume":"402","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.136225","article-title":"Longan pulp polysaccharides regulate gut microbiota and metabolites to protect intestinal epithelial barrier","volume":"422","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2025.105075","article-title":"Modulation of bile acids and farnesoid X receptor by dietary Polysaccharides: Critical roles in health and disease","volume":"162","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Candelli, M., Franza, L., Pignataro, G., Ojetti, V., Covino, M., Piccioni, A., Gasbarrini, A., and Franceschi, F. (2021). Interaction between lipopolysaccharide and gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22126242"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2021.1840976","article-title":"Epidemiology, burden of disease, and unmet needs in the treatment of ulcerative colitis in Asia","volume":"15","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4259","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO03017D","article-title":"Effects of a \u03b2-type glycosidic polysaccharide from Flammulina velutipes on anti-inflammation and gut microbiota modulation in colitis mice","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v63.1559","article-title":"Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide improves rat DSS-induced colitis by altering cecal microbiota and gene expression of colonic epithelial cells","volume":"63","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8635","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO01201K","article-title":"Structural characteristics of Gracilaria lemaneiformis oligosaccharides and their alleviation of dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis by modulating the gut microbiota and intestinal metabolites in mice","volume":"12","author":"Xie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.11.296","article-title":"Effects of belapectin, an inhibitor of galectin-3, in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis with cirrhosis and portal hypertension","volume":"158","author":"Chalasani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3359","article-title":"Association analyses identify 38 susceptibility loci for inflammatory bowel disease and highlight shared genetic risk across populations","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, J.-H., Duan, J.-A., Zhang, W., Jiang, S., Guo, J.-M., and Wei, D.-D. (2018). Polysaccharides from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat ameliorate colitis rats via regulation of the metabolic profiling and NF-\u03ba B\/TLR4 and IL-6\/JAK2\/STAT3 signaling pathways. Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00746"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3831","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO02905J","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of \u03b2-type glycosidic polysaccharide from Pleurotus eryngii on dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, J., Wang, W., He, F., Wang, Y., and Zou, D. (2025). Alleviation of DSS-induced colitis by Meconopsis polysaccharides correlated with reduced PI3K\/AKT signaling and gut microbiome diversity. Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1459668"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968257","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1968257","article-title":"Microbiota metabolite butyrate constrains neutrophil functions and ameliorates mucosal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2018.03.016","article-title":"Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) in physiology and disease: The tale of a repented natural born killer","volume":"30","author":"Bano","year":"2018","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.10.024","article-title":"Butyrate\u2019s role in human health and the current progress towards its clinical application to treat gastrointestinal disease","volume":"42","author":"Hodgkinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-023-00503-6","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids\u2014A product of the microbiome and its participation in two-way communication on the microbiome-host mammal line","volume":"12","author":"Lange","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s11605-009-1045-x","article-title":"Colonic gene expression in conventional and germ-free mice with a focus on the butyrate receptor GPR109A and the butyrate transporter SLC5A8","volume":"14","author":"Cresci","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gastrointest. Surg."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sudirman, S., Hsu, Y.-H., He, J.-L., and Kong, Z.-L. (2018). Dietary polysaccharide-rich extract from Eucheuma cottonii modulates the inflammatory response and suppresses colonic injury on dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0205252"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127835","article-title":"A novel Sagittaria sagittifolia L. polysaccharides mitigate DSS-induced colitis via modulation of gut microbiota and MAPK\/NF-\u03baB signaling pathways","volume":"254","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christodoulou, P., Vlassopoulou, M., Zervou, M., Xanthakos, E., Moulos, P., Koutrotsios, G., Zervakis, G.I., Kerezoudi, E.N., Mitsou, E.K., and Saxami, G. (2023). In Vitro Fermentation of Pleurotus eryngii Mushrooms by Human Fecal Microbiota: Metataxonomic Analysis and Metabolomic Profiling of Fermentation Products. J. Fungi, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof9010128"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M., Zhang, Q., Taha, R., Abdelmotalab, M.I., Wen, Q., Yuan, Y., Zhao, Y., Li, Q., Liao, C., and Huang, X. (2022). Polysaccharide from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. ameliorates DSS-induced colitis in mice by regulating the Th17\/Treg cell balance. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1021695"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2200408","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202200408","article-title":"Huangshan Floral Mushroom Polysaccharide Ameliorates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice by Modulating Th17\/Treg Balance in a Gut Microbiota-Dependent Manner","volume":"67","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.18-0119","article-title":"Compositional and structural features of the main bioactive polysaccharides present in the Aloe vera plant","volume":"101","author":"Femenia","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.03.083","article-title":"Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides ameliorated ulcerative colitis via inhibiting inflammation and enhancing intestinal epithelial barrier function","volume":"180","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.12.092","article-title":"A polysaccharide from cultured mycelium of Hericium erinaceus relieves ulcerative colitis by counteracting oxidative stress and improving mitochondrial function","volume":"125","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14314","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5c01870","article-title":"Polysaccharides from Black Mulberry Attenuate Colitis through Gut Microbiota Mediated TNF-\u03b1\/pNF-\u03baB\/ICAM-1 Signaling Pathway","volume":"73","author":"Yi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.155","article-title":"Ameliorative effect of buckwheat polysaccharides on colitis via regulation of the gut microbiota","volume":"227","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fusco, W., Lorenzo, M.B., Cintoni, M., Porcari, S., Rinninella, E., Kaitsas, F., Lener, E., Mele, M.C., Gasbarrini, A., and Collado, M.C. (2023). Short-chain fatty-acid-producing bacteria: Key components of the human gut microbiota. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092211"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, Y.P., Bernardi, A., and Frozza, R.L. (2020). The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0332-7","article-title":"Interaction between microbiota and immunity in health and disease","volume":"30","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2022.109155","article-title":"Treatment with butyrate alleviates dextran sulfate sodium and Clostridium difficile-induced colitis by preventing activity of Th17 cells via regulation of SIRT1\/mTOR in mice","volume":"111","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24838","DOI":"10.1038\/srep24838","article-title":"Microbial metabolite butyrate facilitates M2 macrophage polarization and function","volume":"6","author":"Ji","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Wu, J., Fan, R., Ma, M., Wang, X., Pi, Y., Yue, X., and Peng, Y. (2026). Almond Polysaccharide Ameliorates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Mice by Restoring Intestinal Barrier Function and Modulating Gut Microbiota and SCFAs Metabolism. Food Front., 7.","DOI":"10.1002\/fft2.70146"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s41110-018-0061-6","article-title":"Colon epithelial cells luminal environment and physiopathological consequences: Impact of nutrition and exercise","volume":"43","author":"Blachier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutrire"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.07.007","article-title":"Aloe polysaccharides ameliorate acute colitis in mice via Nrf2\/HO-1 signaling pathway and short-chain fatty acids metabolism","volume":"185","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11648","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1917597117","article-title":"Microbiota-derived butyrate dynamically regulates intestinal homeostasis through regulation of actin-associated protein synaptopodin","volume":"117","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.232538","article-title":"Dietary fermentable fiber reduces intestinal barrier defects and inflammation in colitic mice","volume":"146","author":"Hung","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, R., Pang, J., Zhao, J., Xiao, X., Li, J., Li, J., Wang, W., Zhou, S., Zhao, Y., and Zhang, Z. (2023). Unveiling the neuroprotective potential of dietary polysaccharides: A systematic review. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1299117"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-018-0126-x","article-title":"Mechanisms regulating intestinal barrier integrity and its pathological implications","volume":"50","author":"Chelakkot","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2232","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-322260","article-title":"Mucus barrier, mucins and gut microbiota: The expected slimy partners?","volume":"69","author":"Paone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuz013","article-title":"Experimental models to study intestinal microbes\u2013mucus interactions in health and disease","volume":"43","author":"Chassaing","year":"2019","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-021-00617-8","article-title":"Slimy partners: The mucus barrier and gut microbiome in ulcerative colitis","volume":"53","author":"Fang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.034","article-title":"Composite of MOF and chitin as an efficient catalyst for photodegradation of organic dyes","volume":"182","author":"Sadjadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2021.100197","article-title":"Gracilaria lemaneiformis polysaccharides alleviate colitis by modulating the gut microbiota and intestinal barrier in mice","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2018.11.049","article-title":"Structure characterization of a polysaccharide extracted from noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) and its protective effect against DSS-induced bowel disease in mice","volume":"90","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeshi, K., Ruscher, R., Hunter, L., Daly, N.L., Loukas, A., and Wangchuk, P. (2020). Revisiting inflammatory bowel disease: Pathology, treatments, challenges and emerging therapeutics including drug leads from natural products. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9051273"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.104835","article-title":"Cytokines in inflammatory bowel diseases\u2013update 2020","volume":"158","author":"Leppkes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO02305K","article-title":"Protective effect of three glucomannans from different plants against DSS induced colitis in female BALB\/c mice","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2014.07.250","article-title":"Effect of Astragalus polysaccharides on expression of TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2 and NFATc4 in a rat model of experimental colitis","volume":"70","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2022.109108","article-title":"Astragalus polysaccharide alleviates ulcerative colitis by regulating the balance of Tfh\/Treg cells","volume":"111","author":"Zhong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.117","article-title":"Carboxymethyl chitosan microspheres loaded hyaluronic acid\/gelatin hydrogels for controlled drug delivery and the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"167","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26298","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c02128","article-title":"Colon-targeting angelica sinensis polysaccharide nanoparticles with dual responsiveness for alleviation of ulcerative colitis","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2016.11.138","article-title":"The mechanism of alopolysaccharide protecting ulceralive colitis","volume":"88","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2020.106221","article-title":"Sulfated polysaccharide extracted from seaweed Gracilaria caudata attenuates acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis","volume":"111","author":"Dutra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-9-54","article-title":"Immunomodulatory dietary polysaccharides: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"9","author":"Ramberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2025.105481","article-title":"From gut to whole body: Natural polysaccharide-based multi-axis network strategies for systemic disease adjuvant therapy","volume":"168","author":"Wei","year":"2026","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2023.104317","article-title":"Recent advance in chemistry modified methods of natural polysaccharides and their applications","volume":"144","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2025.108151","article-title":"Sulfated mulberry (Morus atropurpurea Roxb.) leaf polysaccharide ameliorates dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis via regulation of gut microbiota and intestinal barrier integrity","volume":"75","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Biosci."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.132170","article-title":"The regulatory effect of polysaccharides on the gut microbiota and their effect on human health: A review","volume":"270","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez-Mercado, A.I., and Plaza-Diaz, J. (2022). Dietary Polysaccharides and Gut Microbiota Ecosystem. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14204285"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2021.104483","article-title":"Rhamnogalacturonan polysaccharide inhibits inflammation and oxidative stress and alleviates visceral pain","volume":"82","author":"Dallazen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2022.107914","article-title":"Microbial-enabled green biosynthesis of nanomaterials: Current status and future prospects","volume":"55","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Li, Y., Cao, Q., Ye, L., Wang, J., and Guo, M. (2022). The Function of Natural Polysaccharides in the Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.927855"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.1002\/fft2.270","article-title":"In vitro assessment of the effect of four polysaccharides on intestinal bacteria of mice with colitis","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Front."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pellegrino, R., Imperio, G., De Costanzo, I., Izzo, M., Landa, F., Tambaro, A., Gravina, A.G., and Federico, A. (2025). Small Molecules in the Treatment of Acute Severe Ulcerative Colitis: A Review of Current Evidence. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18030308"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.med.2024.04.016","article-title":"Tratamiento de la enfermedad inflamatoria del tracto intestinal, manejo individualizado. Tratamiento de inducci\u00f3n de la remisi\u00f3n y del mantenimiento","volume":"14","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med.-Programa Form. M\u00e9dica Contin. Acreditado"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-026-11430-9","article-title":"Review on advances in small molecule inhibitors on the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"53","author":"Shi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.4103\/abr.abr_157_24","article-title":"Evaluation Recovery of Ulcerative Colitis with a Lactobacillus Cocktail Derived from Traditional Dairy Products: In vivo Study","volume":"13","author":"Rezai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.136542","article-title":"ROS\/Thermo dual-sensitive hydrogel loaded with a nanoemulsion of patchouli essential oil for ulcerative colitis","volume":"281","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Gan, H., Duan, X., and Li, G. (2024). Targeting the Intestinal Microbiota: A Novel Direction in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12102340"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2401429","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202401429","article-title":"Human Amniotic Epithelial Stem Cells Promote Colonic Recovery in Experimental Colitis via Exosomal MiR-23a\u2013TNFR1\u2013NF-\u03baB Signaling","volume":"11","author":"Kou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeshi, K., Jamtsho, T., and Wangchuk, P. (2024). Current Treatments, Emerging Therapeutics, and Natural Remedies for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29163954"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13564","DOI":"10.1111\/jfbc.13564","article-title":"Regulation effects of indigestible dietary polysaccharides on intestinal microflora: An overview","volume":"45","author":"Ge","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Biochem."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1093\/jcag\/gwae013","article-title":"Practical guidance for managing patients with moderate-to-severe ulcerative colitis using small molecule therapies","volume":"7","author":"Jairath","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Can. Assoc. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1002\/fft2.343","article-title":"Holothuria leucospilota polysaccharides (HLP) ameliorate colitis rats via regulation of the metabolic profiling and TLR4\/NLRP3 signaling pathways","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Front."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/13\/2267\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T04:53:07Z","timestamp":1782535987000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/13\/2267"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"references-count":182,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["foods15132267"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods15132267","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]}}}