{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T04:20:30Z","timestamp":1783657230081,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chinese University Research Startup","award":["QDSK112025025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QDSK112025025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pixian Doubanjiang (PXDB) is a traditional Chinese fermented condiment whose characteristic aroma and taste are strongly influenced by fermentation conditions. This study aimed to systematically compare the flavor profiles of PXDB produced via traditional open fermentation (TOF) and industrial closed fermentation (ICF), aiming to elucidate the chemical basis of sensory divergence and provide scientific support for industrial process optimization. In this study, PXDB samples were evaluated using sensory evaluation, GC-IMS, 1H-NMR metabolomics, and multivariate statistical analysis. Sensory evaluation revealed that ICF exhibited a stronger soy sauce-like aroma, alcohol note, and umami intensity, whereas TOF and ICF showed comparable sweetness, sourness, chili-like aroma, and roasted aroma. GC-IMS putatively identified 126 volatile compounds, and multivariate analyses demonstrated a clear separation between the two fermentation modes. Based on combined criteria of VIP &gt; 1, FDR-adjusted p &lt; 0.05, and |fold change| &gt; 2, 35 differential volatile compounds were identified. ICF was characterized by higher levels of esters, particularly ethyl esters, and selected ketones, while TOF showed enrichment of higher alcohols, terpenes, and sulfur compounds. 1H-NMR analysis identified 54 non-volatile metabolites, of which 16 differed significantly between TOF and ICF, mainly involving amino acids, organic acids, and carbohydrates. Pathway analysis highlighted branched-chain amino acid and glutamate-related metabolism as key contributors to flavor divergence. Correlation analysis further revealed that soy sauce-like aroma and umami perception were strongly associated with amino acid-derived metabolites, esters, sulfur-containing compounds, and branched-chain aldehydes, highlighting the coordinated contribution of volatile and non-volatile compounds to flavor differentiation. Overall, fermentation mode was found to reshape PXDB flavor through coordinated modulation of volatile and non-volatile metabolism, providing experimental insight for improving industrial fermentation quality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15132384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T14:33:06Z","timestamp":1783089186000},"page":"2384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparison of Aroma and Taste Profiles of Pixian Douban Fermented with Traditional Open Process or Industrial Closed Process"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Qiuyu","family":"Lan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Modern Industrial College of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Health, Li Shui University, Lishui 323000, China"},{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3486-1936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chenglin","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Food, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peiyi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Food, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1593-7376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Laghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.04.004","article-title":"High-Throughput Sequencing and Culture-Based Approaches to Analyze Microbial Diversity Associated with Chemical Changes in Naturally Fermented Tofu Whey, a Traditional Chinese Tofu-Coagulant","volume":"76","author":"Fei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4142","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.11050","article-title":"Dynamics and Correlation of Microbial Community and Flavor in Pixian Douban Fermented with Closed Process of Constant Temperature","volume":"101","author":"Ding","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. 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