{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:49:58Z","timestamp":1792691398079,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Doctoral Research Startup Foundation of Liaoning Province","award":["2024-BS-293"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-BS-293"]}]},{"award":["2024-BS-293"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-BS-293"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s31v772","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Presidential Foundation of the Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences","award":["2024BS1003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024BS1003"]}]},{"award":["2024BS1003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024BS1003"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03vnb1535","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Science and Technology Plan Joint Program","award":["2025JH2\/101800102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025JH2\/101800102"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geographical traceability of rice is critical for authenticity identification and quality control, yet it poses considerable challenges for tracing origins in adjacent small-scale producing areas. To explore the causes of metabolic differences and geographical traceability potential of rice from adjacent small-scale producing areas, non-targeted metabolomics combined with multivariate statistical analysis was employed to systematically investigate the metabolic profiles of rice from Panjin (PJ), Donggang (DG) and Yingkou (YK) in Liaoning Province. The characteristic metabolic markers for each producing area were screened, and the effects of climatic and soil factors as well as their interactive effects on grain metabolite composition were elucidated. The results showed that the partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) model established based on differential metabolites achieved acceptable discrimination among rice samples from the three regions. With variable importance in projection (VIP) &gt; 2.0 as the screening threshold, the core characteristic markers of each producing area were determined: PJ is LPC 17:2, LPA 18:3, D-(+)-Arabitol, DG is 2\u2032-Deoxyadenosine, LDGTS 18:2, and YK is LPE 17:2; the markers are mainly primary metabolites, including lipids, sugar alcohols and nucleotides. Sunshine duration, air humidity, wind conditions and soil layer temperature were highly correlated climatic drivers responsible for metabolic differentiation, and characteristic metabolic markers from different producing areas exhibited distinct meteorological response patterns. Soil physicochemical properties and mineral elements significantly affected the differential accumulation of metabolites, among which soil Sr element and organic matter exhibited crucial indicative significance for metabolic variation of rice in adjacent regions. Multi-factor interaction analysis verified significant synergistic coupling effects between regional climate and soil environment. Meteorological factors, including sunshine, wind and soil temperature, together with soil chemical factors involving organic matter, pH, Sr, K and Ca, were identified as core driving factors for the spatial differentiation of region-specific rice metabolites. The present study provides theoretical support at the metabolic level for the construction of a small-scale rice geographical traceability system and the mechanism research on the regional quality formation of rice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15142499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T05:39:38Z","timestamp":1784093978000},"page":"2499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Non-Targeted Metabolomics Reveals the Metabolic Differentiation of Rice from Adjacent Small-Scale Producing Areas and Its Response to Climatic and Soil Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Xianxin","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zeting","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fushun Inspection & Examination Certification Center, Fushun 113000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianshu","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lina","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiujun","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chunjing","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingchuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fushun County Agricultural and Rural Development Service Center, Fushun 113009, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianzhong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agricultural Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenyang 110161, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5309","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.16828","article-title":"Differences in the metabolites of brown and milled rice grains of semiwaxy and conventional japonica varieties","volume":"88","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, H., Zhang, J., Bai, L., Liu, J., Li, H., Hua, J., and Luo, S. (2023). Chemical structure diversity and extensive biological functions of specialized metabolites in rice. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242317053"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcr.2025.109995","article-title":"Response of rice quality to climate warming: A meta-analysis","volume":"331","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Field Crops Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Wen, K.S., Ruan, X., Zhao, Y.X., Wei, F., and Wang, Q. (2018). Response of plant secondary metabolites to environmental factors. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23040762"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s44154-024-00150-4","article-title":"Common and specific genetic basis of metabolite-mediated drought responses in rice","volume":"4","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stress Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s12284-022-00600-5","article-title":"Transcriptome and metabolome analyses reveals the pathway and metabolites of grain quality under phytochrome B in rice (Oryza sativa L.)","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rice"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plantsci.2019.110282","article-title":"Metabolic profile analysis and identification of key metabolites during rice seed germination under low-temperature stress","volume":"289","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.131411","article-title":"Metabolomics and transcriptomics reveal the toxic mechanism of Cd and nano TiO2 coexposure on rice (Oryza sativa L.)","volume":"453","author":"Qiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2025.147425","article-title":"Metabolic adaptations of rice roots to methylmercury: Insights from high and low accumulators","volume":"500","author":"Xiong","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2020.01.006","article-title":"The effect of developmental and environmental factors on secondary metabolites in medicinal plants","volume":"148","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plant Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.139227","article-title":"Metabolomics applications for plant-based foods origin tracing, cultivars identification and processing: Feasibility and future aspects","volume":"449","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Tan, M., Deng, H., Yang, X., Yu, Y., Zhou, D., and Dong, H. (2022). Geographical origin differentiation of rice by LC-MS-based non-targeted metabolomics. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11213318"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.127553","article-title":"Metabolomic fingerprinting of volatile organic compounds for the geographical discrimination of rice samples from China, Vietnam and India","volume":"334","author":"Ch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, X., Li, L., Peng, T., Lin, Q., Li, G., Guo, C., Zou, X., and Wang, J. (2025). Classification of crab-field rice and conventional rice based on multi element, stable isotope, and nontargeted metabolome combined with chemometrics. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5174001"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2006). Soil Testing Part 6: Method for Determination of Soil Organic Matter (Standard No. NY\/T 1121.6-2006)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2020.103059","article-title":"Effects of heat, drought and their combined effects on morphological structure and physicochemical properties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) starch","volume":"95","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2018.05.012","article-title":"Discrimination of conventional and organic rice using untargeted LC-MS-based metabolomics","volume":"82","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2022.463215","article-title":"Non-targeted analysis with liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry for the identification of food packaging migrants","volume":"1676","author":"Sapozhnikova","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-022-00166-y","article-title":"A sense of ginger fraud: Prevalence and deconstruction of the China-European union supply chain","volume":"6","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"npj Sci. Food"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4364","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.10462","article-title":"Effect of storage on metabolites of brown rice","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2882","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1589","article-title":"Effects of storage on brown rice (Oryza sativa L.) metabolites, analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"eraf482","article-title":"Lipid-mediated responses to nutrient and other stresses: Roles in plant adaptation and signaling","volume":"31","author":"Pandey","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1093\/pcp\/pct079","article-title":"Arabitol provided by lichenous fungi enhances ability to dissipate excess light energy in a symbiotic green alga under desiccation","volume":"54","author":"Kosugi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e113499","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2023113499","article-title":"High air humidity dampens salicylic acid pathway and NPR1 function to promote plant disease","volume":"42","author":"Yao","year":"2023","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Xin, W., Wang, Y., Zhang, D., Wang, J., Zheng, H., Yang, L., Nie, S., and Zou, D. (2022). An integrated analysis of the rice transcriptome and lipidome reveals lipid metabolism plays a central role in rice cold tolerance. BMC Plant Biol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12870-022-03468-1"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2025.117895","article-title":"Lipidomic profiling of 56 japonica rice cultivars and identification of novel fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids","volume":"223","author":"Nath","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/jipb.13054","article-title":"Contribution of phenylpropanoid metabolism to plant development and plant-environment interactions","volume":"63","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Integr. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2026.118769","article-title":"Multi-scale geographical origin discrimination of geographical indication rice based on multi-source data fusion combined with machine learning: A case of Panjin rice","volume":"231","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/14\/2499\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T05:49:09Z","timestamp":1784094549000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/14\/2499"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["foods15142499"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods15142499","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]}}}