{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T06:02:14Z","timestamp":1793426534533,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786579200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty, and Forestry","award":["667550"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["667550"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rising health consciousness among Millennials and Generation Z is boosting the demand for non-alcoholic and low-alcohol beers (NABLABs), which offer the sensory appeal of beer with fewer ethanol drawbacks. This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of this sector, covering market trends, regulatory complexities, and the technical aspects of biological and physical dealcoholisation methods, and offering insights into production costs and environmental impact. The global market for NABLABs is experiencing rapid growth, with a projected compound annual growth rate of approximately 7% (2024\u20132028) and an estimated market value approaching USD 44 billion by 2034. Market penetration remains geographically heterogeneous, and there is a lack of regulatory harmonisation, particularly within the European Union, where national thresholds for ethanol content classification diverge significantly. From a process engineering perspective, NABLAB production can be achieved using two main technological approaches: (i) biological ethanol limitation strategies, encompassing controlled mashing, arrested fermentation, cold-contact fermentation and the use of maltose-negative or genetically modified yeast strains, and (ii) post-fermentation dealcoholisation, employing thermal separation technologies, such as vacuum distillation, thin-film evaporation and spinning cone columns, or membrane-based processes such as reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, pervaporation, osmotic distillation and dialysis, alongside emerging supercritical CO2 extraction. A critical technological trade-off persists between the efficiency with which ethanol is removed and the retention of volatile flavour-active compounds, including esters and higher alcohols. It is evident that biological processes are associated with the accumulation of worty aldehydes and the attenuation of antimicrobial barriers, resulting in increased risks to microbiological safety. Empirical evidence has been documented showing that E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica, and Listeria monocytogenes have been found to survive for extended periods in craft NABs exhibiting pH &gt; 4.20 and an alcohol-by-volume (ABV) &lt; 0.5%. This emphasises the importance of validated thermal or sterile filtration treatments, particularly in the craft beer sector.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15162822","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T09:31:09Z","timestamp":1786613469000},"page":"2822","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Non-Alcoholic and Low-Alcohol Beer: Regulatory Complexity, Market Expansion and Technical Bottlenecks in Biological and Physical Dealcoholisation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2526-7882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessia","family":"D\u2019Andrea","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Ricerca Olivicoltura, Frutticoltura, Agrumicoltura, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l\u2019Analisi dell\u2019Economia Agraria, Via di Fioranello 52, 00134 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8606-603X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Licciardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Ricerca Politiche e Bio-Economia, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l\u2019Analisi dell\u2019Economia Agraria, Via Barberini 36, 00187 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erika","family":"Celi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Ricerca Olivicoltura, Frutticoltura, Agrumicoltura, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l\u2019Analisi dell\u2019Economia Agraria, Via di Fioranello 52, 00134 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0016-725X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katya","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Ricerca Olivicoltura, Frutticoltura, Agrumicoltura, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l\u2019Analisi dell\u2019Economia Agraria, Via di Fioranello 52, 00134 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2024.114598","article-title":"Cold extraction process for producing a low-alcohol beer, International Pale Lager style: Evaluation and description of flavors using electronic tongue","volume":"190","author":"Borges","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Res. 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