{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T12:26:03Z","timestamp":1789129563228,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, seaweeds have attracted increasing scientific and commercial interest thanks to their protein, lipid and mineral content, and the presence of bioactive compounds that can have a positive impact on health. In light of this, seaweed is an innovative plant food source. This study characterizes commercial edible seaweeds (dulse, wakame, kombu, arame, nori, spirulina), evaluating their mineral composition, with particular attention to toxic or potentially toxic elements, and their fatty acid profile. The results revealed significant differences between species, which are probably related to taxonomic and environmental factors. Brown algae exhibited the highest levels of macroelements, particularly K and Na, which is consistent with their alginate-rich cell walls. Other species exhibited significant concentrations of Fe and Zn, while Pb and Hg remained below regulatory limits. However, nearly all samples exceeded the recommended limits of 0.5 mg\/kg for Cd and 3 mg\/kg for total As, as defined by the Centre d\u2019\u00c9tude et de Valorisation des Algues (CEVA). Additionally, kombu samples had an extremely high iodine content, exceeding the upper CEVA-recommended limit of 2000 mg\/kg. These values, therefore, require targeted risk assessments and consumer guidance. The fatty acid profile also appeared to vary by taxa. Red algae, especially nori, were rich in EPA, while brown species showed heterogeneous distributions of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA. Spirulina displayed a distinctive SFA- and n-6 PUFA-rich profile. Overall, the results confirm the need for careful management of iodine, Cd and As levels to ensure that these seaweeds can be used safely as food supplements and to promote their use in innovative food products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15183219","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T10:51:37Z","timestamp":1789123897000},"page":"3219","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Commercial Edible Seaweeds: Characterization by Mineral Content and Fatty Acid Composition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5966-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Nava","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8608-2435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela Giorgia","family":"Potort\u00ec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3823-174X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ambrogina","family":"Albergamo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2799-6561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Sturniolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences (CHIBIOFARAM), University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Irene Maria","family":"Span\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences (CHIBIOFARAM), University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8103-6942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppa","family":"Di Bella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Viale Palatucci 13, 98168 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"FAO (2026, June 07). Production, Trade and Utilization of Seaweeds and Seaweed Products. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/4\/ac860e\/AC860E03.htm."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arakaki, N., Flores Ramos, L., Oscanoa Huaynate, A.I., Ru\u00edz Soto, A., and Ram\u00edrez, M.E. (2023). Biochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Edible Seaweeds from the Peruvian Coast. Plants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12091795"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2021.104150","article-title":"Assessment of heavy-and semi-metals contamination in edible seaweed and dried fish sold in ethnic food stores on the Italian market","volume":"104","author":"Panebianco","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavallo, G., Lorini, C., Garamella, G., and Bonaccorsi, G. (2021). Seaweeds as a \u201cpalatable\u201d challenge between innovation and sustainability: A systematic review of food safety. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13147652"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12523","article-title":"Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain","volume":"19","author":"Banach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podg\u00f3rska-Kryszczuk, I. (2024). Spirulina\u2014An invaluable source of macro-and micronutrients with broad biological activity and application potential. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29225387"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, M., Harrison, S.T., Smit, M., and Maharajh, D. (2016). Major commercial products from micro-and macroalgae. Algae Biotechnology: Products and Processes, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-12334-9_14"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19610","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-23609-8","article-title":"Comparative analysis of proximate compositions, mineral and functional chemical groups of 15 different seaweed species","volume":"12","author":"Premarathna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2021.102542","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids of microalgae as a food supplement: A review of exogenous factors for production enhancement","volume":"60","author":"Perdana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2024.103532","article-title":"Freshwater green alga Chlorella sp. KLSc59 produced all forms of omega-3 oil: ALA, EPA, and DHA","volume":"80","author":"Preechaphonkul","year":"2024","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuy066","article-title":"Risks and benefits of consuming edible seaweeds","volume":"77","author":"Cherry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.127983","article-title":"Heavy metals and potential risks in edible seaweed on the market in Italy","volume":"263","author":"Filippini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.3390\/nutraceuticals4030020","article-title":"Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare?","volume":"4","author":"Cotas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutraceuticals"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lytou, A.E., Schoina, E., Liu, Y., Michalek, K., Stanley, M.S., Panagou, E.Z., and Nychas, G.-J.E. (2021). Quality and Safety Assessment of Edible Seaweeds Alaria esculenta and Saccharina latissima Cultivated in Scotland. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10092210"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nava, V., Potort\u00ec, A.G., Lo Turco, V., Span\u00f2, I.M., Sturniolo, R., and Di Bella, G. (2026). Safety of Commercial Cod Products and Potential Impact on Consumers. Foods, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15071202"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2025.107628","article-title":"Proximate composition and mineral profile of Moroccan and Italian carobs","volume":"143","author":"Nava","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2000). Fat (Crude) or Ether Extract in Animal Feed (Standard No. Official Method 920.39)."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potort\u00ec, A.G., Albergamo, A., Nava, V., Lo Turco, V., Litrenta, F., Span\u00f2, I.M., and Di Bella, G. (2026). Chemical Composition and Nutritional Quality of Commercial Tahini. Appl. Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/app16031400"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lo Turco, V., Sgr\u00f2, B., Albergamo, A., Nava, V., Rando, R., Potort\u00ec, A.G., and Di Bella, G. (2023). Assessment of the Accuracy of Nutrition Label and Chemical Composition of Plant-Based Milks Available on the Italian Market. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12173207"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nava, V., Turco, V.L., Licata, P., Panayotova, V., Peycheva, K., Fazio, F., Rando, R., Di Bella, G., and Potort\u00ec, A.G. (2023). Determination of Fatty Acid Profile in Processed Fish and Shellfish Foods. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202304.1000.v1"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"European Communities Commission (2008). DIRECTIVE 2008\/100\/EC of 28 October 2008 amending Council Directive 90\/496\/EEC on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions. Off. J. Eur. Union, L 285, 9\u201312. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/PDF\/?uri=CELEX:32008L0100."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"European Communities Commission (2025, July 09). Regulation (EU). No 1169\/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the Provision of Food Information to Consumers, Amending Regulations (EC) No 1924\/2006 and (EC) No 1925\/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and Repealing Commission Directive 87\/250\/EEC, Council Directive 90\/496\/EEC, Commission Directive 1999\/10\/EC, Directive 2000\/13\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002\/67\/EC and 2008\/5\/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608\/2004 Text with EEA Relevance. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2011\/1169\/2018-01-01."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2002.10719188","article-title":"Lithium: Occurrence, Dietary Intakes, Nutritional Essentiality","volume":"21","author":"Schrauzer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2009). Scientific opinion on arsenic in food. EFSA J., 7, 1351.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2009.1351"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA CONTAM Panel (2024). Risk assessment of complex organoarsenic species in food. EFSA J., 22, e9112.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2024.p221201"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2010). Scientific opinion on lead in food. EFSA J., 8, 1570."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2012). Scientific opinion on the risk for public health related to the presence of mercury and methylmercury in food. EFSA J., 10, 2985.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2012.2985"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2012). Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population. EFSA J., 10, 2551.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2012.2551"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"EFSA CONTAM Panel (2020). Scientific Opinion on the update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. EFSA J., 18, 6268."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark, S\u00e1 Monteiro, M., Sloth, J., Holdt, S., and Hansen, M. (2019). Analysis and risk assessment of seaweed. EFSA J., 17, e170915.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2019.e170915"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"556250","article-title":"Nutritional benefits of edible macroalgae from the central Portuguese coast","volume":"28","author":"Milinovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Nat. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3281","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6681","article-title":"Characterization of protein, lipid and mineral contents in common Norwegian seaweeds and evaluation of their potential as food and feed","volume":"94","author":"Malde","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.03.057","article-title":"Chemical composition of red, brown and green macroalgae from Buarcos bay in Central West Coast of Portugal","volume":"183","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1592","article-title":"Minerals in edible seaweed: Health benefits and food safety issues","volume":"62","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janda-Milczarek, K., Szymczykowska, K., Jakubczyk, K., Kupnicka, P., Skonieczna-Zydecka, K., Pilarczyk, B., Tomza-Marciniak, A., Ligenza, A., Stachowska, E., and Dalewski, B. (2023). Spirulina Supplements as a Source of Mineral Nutrients in the Daily Diet. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13021011"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Circuncis\u00e3o, A.R., Catarino, M.D., Cardoso, S.M., and Silva, A.M. (2018). Minerals from macroalgae origin: Health benefits and risks for consumers. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16110400"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S157523","article-title":"The good, the bad, and the ugly of calcium supplementation: A review of calcium intake on human health","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.06.004","article-title":"Potassium","volume":"14","author":"Frassetto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"e71392","article-title":"Magnesium Matters: A Comprehensive Review of Its Vital Role in Health and Diseases","volume":"16","author":"Fatima","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00223-020-00686-3","article-title":"Phosphate metabolism in health and disease","volume":"108","author":"Peacock","year":"2021","journal-title":"Calcif. Tissue Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mente, A., O\u2019Donnell, M., and Yusuf, S. (2021). Sodium Intake and Health: What Should We Recommend Based on the Current Evidence?. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13093232"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masten Rutar, J., Jagodic Hudobivnik, M., Ne\u010demer, M., Vogel Miku\u0161, K., Ar\u010don, I., and Ogrinc, N. (2022). Nutritional Quality and Safety of the Spirulina Dietary Supplements Sold on the Slovenian Market. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11060849"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Commission Recommendation (EU) (2026, June 07). 2018\/464 of 19 March 2018 on the Monitoring of Metals and Iodine in Seaweed, Halophytes and Products Based on Seaweed. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reco\/2018\/464\/oj."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.8798","article-title":"Chemical characterization of 21 species of marine macroalgae common in Norwegian waters: Benefits of and limitations to their potential use in food and feed","volume":"98","author":"Biancarosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"CEVA (Centre d\u2019\u00e9tude & de valorisation des algues) (2026, June 07). Edible Seaweed and Microalgae-Regulatory Status in France and Europe 2024 Update. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceva-algues.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/EN-V14-regulatory-update2024.pdf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.14041","article-title":"Excess iodine intake: Sources, assessment, and effects on thyroid function","volume":"1446","author":"Farebrother","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"136","article-title":"Effect of excess iodine intake on thyroid on human health","volume":"108","author":"Eftychia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Minerva Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2008.10.010","article-title":"Heavy metals in edible seaweeds commercialised for human consumption","volume":"75","author":"Besada","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khandaker, M.U., Chijioke, N.O., Heffny, N.A.B., Bradley, D.A., Alsubaie, A., Sulieman, A., Faruque, M.R.I., Sayyed, M.I., and Al-mugren, K.S. (2021). Elevated Concentrations of Metal(loids) in Seaweed and the Concomitant Exposure to Humans. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10020381"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36478","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-06713-7","article-title":"Human exposure assessment to macro-and trace elements in the most consumed edible seaweeds in Europe","volume":"26","author":"Paz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1769","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1720739115","article-title":"SLC39A14 deficiency alters manganese homeostasis and excretion resulting in brain manganese accumulation and motor deficits in mice","volume":"115","author":"Jenkitkasemwong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2024.2435061","article-title":"Element contents in edible seaweeds and assessment of human health from their consumption","volume":"88","author":"Chow","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2017.09.004","article-title":"Characterisation and chemometric evaluation of 21 trace elements in three edible seaweed species imported from south-east Asia","volume":"64","author":"Miedico","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.01.064","article-title":"Metals in edible seaweed","volume":"173","author":"Rubio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.61326\/foodb.v2i2.104","article-title":"Proximate composition, trace and macro element, and heavy metal content of edible seaweed Solieria robusta in Tawi-Tawi, Philippines","volume":"2","author":"Ajik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Bull."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2022.113866","article-title":"Heavy metals and metalloids in edible seaweeds of Saint Martin\u2019s Island, Bay of Bengal, and their potential health risks","volume":"181","author":"Siddique","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2010.03.015","article-title":"Validation of an ICP-OES method for macro and trace element determination in Laminaria and Porphyra seaweeds from four different countries","volume":"23","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66781","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-27192-x","article-title":"Bioaccumulation level of metals and health risk assessment of selected red and green seaweeds validated by ICP-MS","volume":"30","author":"Pasumpon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reboredo, F.H., Junior, W., Pessoa, M.F., Lidon, F.C., Ramalho, J.C., Leit\u00e3o, R.G., Silva, M.M., Alvarenga, N., and Guerra, M. (2021). Elemental Composition of Algae-Based Supplements by Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10102041"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/01140671003619290","article-title":"Nutrient and heavy metal content of edible seaweeds in New Zealand","volume":"38","author":"Smith","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Z. J. Crop Hortic. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"101830","article-title":"Heavy metals in seaweed: Implications for health benefits, risks, and safety regulations","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"European Union (2002). Directive 2002\/32\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 May 2002 on undesirable substances in animal feed. Off. J. Eur. Commun., L 140, 10\u201322."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3987","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-020-02509-w","article-title":"An investigation of toxic metal levels (Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Hg) in dried Porphyra and Laminaria collected from coastal cities, China","volume":"199","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Commission Regulation (EU) (2026, July 21). 2023\/915 of 25 April 2023 on Maximum Levels for Certain Contaminants in Foodstuffs and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881\/2006. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/IT\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:32023R0915."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.133651","article-title":"Distribution of 26 major and trace elements in edible seaweeds from the US market","volume":"294","author":"Todorov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, J.I., Cort\u00e9s, S., Maluenda, P., and Soto, I. (2023). Biosorption of Heavy Metals with Algae: Critical Review of Its Application in Real Effluents. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15065521"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2006.06.011","article-title":"Total arsenic, inorganic arsenic, lead and cadmium contents in edible seaweed sold in Spain","volume":"44","author":"Almela","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M.H., Kim, J., Noh, C.H., Choi, S., Joo, Y.S., and Lee, K.W. (2020). Monitoring arsenic species content in seaweeds produced off the southern coast of Korea and its risk assessment. Environments, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments7090068"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2015.1113598","article-title":"Essential and toxic elements in seaweeds for human consumption","volume":"79","author":"Desideri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2023.105162","article-title":"Content, speciation and in vitro bioaccessibility of trace elements in seaweeds and derived food products","volume":"118","author":"Junior","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Commission Regulation (EU) (2026, June 07). 2024\/1987 of 30 July 2024 Amending Regulation (EU) 2023\/915 as Regards Maximum Levels of Nickel in Certain Foodstuffs. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2024\/1987\/oj."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo, J.M., Agreg\u00e1n, R., Munekata, P.E.S., Franco, D., Carballo, J., \u015eahin, S., Lacomba, R., and Barba, F.J. (2017). Proximate composition and nutritional value of three macroalgae: Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus vesiculosus and Bifurcaria bifurcata. Mar. Drugs, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/md15110360"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, B.M., Ramalho, E., Marmelo, I., Noronha, J.P., Malfeito-Ferreira, M., Mata, P., and Diniz, M.S. (2022). Proximate composition, physicochemical and microbiological characterization of edible seaweeds available in the Portuguese market. Front. Biosci., 14.","DOI":"10.31083\/j.fbe1404026"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaworowska, A., Murtaza, A., and Boateng, J. (2026). Dried seaweeds available on the United Kingdom market are a potential a source of n-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Sustainability, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/su18073332"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"20548","article-title":"Fatty acid profile of Spirulina platensis used as a food supplement","volume":"61","author":"Dibeklioglu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Isr. J. Aquac.-Bamidgeh"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3319","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-020-02170-9","article-title":"Evaluation of the volatile composition and fatty acid profile of seven Antarctic macroalgae","volume":"32","author":"Berneira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x","article-title":"Biomass nutrient profiles of three microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana","volume":"68","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"157","article-title":"Valuable biomolecules from nine north atlantic red macroalgae: Amino acids, fatty acids, carotenoids, minerals and metals","volume":"7","author":"Parjikolaei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2009.07.047","article-title":"Study of the chemical composition of edible red macroalgae Grateloupia turuturu from Brittany (France)","volume":"119","author":"Denis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia-Vaquero, M., Rajauria, G., Miranda, M., Sweeney, T., Lopez-Alonso, M., and O\u2019Doherty, J. (2021). Seasonal Variation of the Proximate Composition, Mineral Content, Fatty Acid Profiles and Other Phytochemical Constituents of Selected Brown Macroalgae. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19040204"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-016-1034-x","article-title":"Antarctic red macroalgae: A source of polyunsaturated fatty acids","volume":"29","author":"Santos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomczyk, M., Heileson, J.L., Babiarz, M., and Calder, P.C. (2023). Athletes can benefit from increased intake of EPA and DHA\u2014Evaluating the evidence. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15234925"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-013-0132-2","article-title":"Fatty acid contents and profiles of 16 macroalgae collected from the Irish Coast at two seasons","volume":"26","author":"Schmid","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.focha.2023.100426","article-title":"A comparative evaluation of nutritional composition and antioxidant properties of six Malaysian edible seaweeds","volume":"3","author":"Chin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. Adv."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2017). Dietary Reference Values for nutrients Summary report. EFSA Support. Publ., 14, e15121.","DOI":"10.2903\/sp.efsa.2017.e15121"}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/18\/3219\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T11:19:35Z","timestamp":1789125575000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/18\/3219"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["foods15183219"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods15183219","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]}}}