{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T13:10:30Z","timestamp":1789391430258,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Special Program for Key Fields in Regular Higher Education Institutions","award":["2023ZDZX2083"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023ZDZX2083"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sequential non-thermal and thermal processing offers a route to jointly adjust the functionality, color\/volatile profile and immunoreactivity of gluten-containing systems. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of sequential ultrasound-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis, wheat\/rice starch incorporation and microwave heating on soluble gluten hydrolysate\u2013starch composites, and to probe the underlying starch\u2013gluten interactions. Gluten hydrolysates were blended with wheat or rice starch and microwave-heated to induce the Maillard reaction. Sequential processing enriched the &lt;1 kDa peptide fraction (2.34%\u219213.05\u201314.99%) and raised ABTS\u00b7+ scavenging (0.25\u21920.40 mM Trolox\/g). After starch compounding and microwaving, the composites exhibited increased protein-normalized TEAC (0.07\u20130.08 to 0.10\u20130.13 mM per mg\/mL protein) and released more ninhydrin-reactive amino groups (&gt;55 \u03bcmol\/mg protein) after in vitro digestion. All microwave composites remained pale (L* &gt; 94), with the coupled treated rice-starch composite showing the lowest color difference (\u0394E = 0.25). GC-FID\/electronic-nose profiling with PCA\u2013DFA showed that the coupled treated composites retained a native cereal-like volatile profile, marked by the green\/malty aldehyde 3-methylbutanal and hexanal, with only mild roasted-type Maillard volatiles and the clearest separation for rice starch. The lowest residual R5-reactive gluten reached 8.31\u20139.82 ppm for the coupled treated groups. Docking provided putative models of multi-site starch binding near immunodominant gliadin sequences (e.g., QQPYP, LQPFP) via Glu\/Gln\u2013glucose hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts, with more diverse binding modes for rice starch. Overall, the sequential treatment improved functional and volatile properties and lowered R5-detectable immunoreactivity for composites, offering a process reference for the development of balanced gluten-derived functional ingredients and special dietary food formulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15183243","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T12:09:51Z","timestamp":1789387791000},"page":"3243","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sequential Ultrasound-Assisted Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Microwave Treatment of Gluten\u2013Starch Complexes: Functionality, Volatile Profiles, In Vitro Immunoreactivity and Interactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5886-6817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenlong","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Dong","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry, Guangdong University of Technology, No. 100 Waihuan Xi Road, Panyu District, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Xia","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"},{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering and Energy Technology, Dongguan University of Technology, College Road 1, Dongguan 523808, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Bing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Xinhui","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering,  Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7120","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.9b01063","article-title":"Effects of Starch on the Digestibility of Gluten under Different Thermal Processing Conditions","volume":"67","author":"Wen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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