{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:03:23Z","timestamp":1792789403105,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Sungshin Women\u2019s University","award":["2025 (H20250048)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025 (H20250048)"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0500xzf72","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2025 (H20250048)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025 (H20250048)"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0500xzf72","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Buckwheat contains rutin, a flavonoid, and fagopyrin F, a photosensitizer. This study compared household processing methods to determine how fagopyrin F content could be reduced while limiting rutin loss. Common and Tartary buckwheat (CB and TB) grains were processed using seven household methods: boiling, steaming, microwave heating, pan roasting, oven heating, deep frying, and air frying. Extractable phenolic and total flavonoid contents were determined colorimetrically; rutin and fagopyrin F were quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection and tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. In CB, steaming and several dry-heating treatments increased the measured rutin content. In TB, microwave heating for 120 s, oven heating at 180 \u00b0C for 5 min, and air frying at 180 \u00b0C for 5 min maintained rutin at 95.7\u2013105.9% of the control. All treatments reduced measured fagopyrin F content. The largest reductions occurred after medium-flame pan roasting, oven heating at 200 \u00b0C, deep frying at 190 \u00b0C, and air frying at 180\u2013200 \u00b0C. Under corresponding processing conditions, the relative decrease in fagopyrin F was greater in CB than in TB. The rutin-to-fagopyrin F ratio increased under all calculable conditions. These results provide a basis for selecting processing conditions that reduce fagopyrin F with limited rutin loss.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15183284","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T09:59:03Z","timestamp":1789639143000},"page":"3284","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Household Processing on Rutin and Fagopyrin F in Common and Tartary Buckwheat"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jimin","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women\u2019s University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Seong Ae","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women\u2019s University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jaecheol","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women\u2019s University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1094\/CC-83-0391","article-title":"Buckwheat","volume":"83","author":"Wijngaard","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podolska, G., Gujska, E., Klepacka, J., and Aleksandrowicz, E. (2021). Bioactive compounds in different buckwheat species. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10050961"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"493","article-title":"Buckwheat: A crop from outside the major Chinese domestication centres? A review of the archaeobotanical, palynological and genetic evidence","volume":"27","author":"Hunt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Veget. Hist. Archaeobot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6452","DOI":"10.1021\/jf034543e","article-title":"Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) as a source of dietary rutin and quercitrin","volume":"51","author":"Fabjan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2015.07.005","article-title":"Contribution of flavonoids to the antioxidant properties of common and Tartary buckwheat","volume":"68","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5715","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5b01163","article-title":"Fagopyrins and protofagopyrins: Detection, analysis, and potential phototoxicity in buckwheat","volume":"63","author":"Kreft","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2013.07.005","article-title":"Fagopyrin and flavonoid contents in common, Tartary, and cymosum buckwheat","volume":"32","author":"Stojilkovski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2017.01.068","article-title":"Determination of fagopyrins, rutin, and quercetin in Tartary buckwheat products","volume":"79","author":"Stojilkovski","year":"2017","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2019.103354","article-title":"Fagopyrins in different parts of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum) during growth","volume":"86","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., Kim, S., Lee, K., Kim, R.H., and Hwang, K.T. (2021). Antibacterial photodynamic inactivation of fagopyrin F from Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) flower against Streptococcus mutans and its biofilm. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22126205"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2012.02.006","article-title":"Review of the effects of food processing and formulation on flavonol and anthocyanin behaviour","volume":"111","author":"Ioannou","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2022.100915","article-title":"Impact of thermal processing on dietary flavonoids","volume":"48","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2009.06.020","article-title":"Antioxidant properties of Tartary buckwheat extracts as affected by different thermal processing methods","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5565","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.9825","article-title":"Alteration of phenolic profiles and antioxidant capacities of common buckwheat and Tartary buckwheat produced in China upon thermal processing","volume":"99","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1007\/s00217-023-04235-8","article-title":"Chemical compounds and bioactivities of the extracts from radish (Raphanus sativus) sprouts exposed to red and blue light-emitting diodes during cultivation","volume":"249","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Food Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2023.105362","article-title":"Flavonoids in different parts of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum) during growth","volume":"120","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2021.103894","article-title":"Determination and photochemical conversion of protofagopyrins and fagopyrins in buckwheat plants","volume":"100","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn-Garc\u00eda, B., Pasini, F., Verardo, V., G\u00f3mez-Caravaca, A.M., Marconi, E., and Caboni, M.F. (2019). Distribution of free and bound phenolic compounds in buckwheat milling fractions. Foods, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods8120670"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2005.08.007","article-title":"Effect of processing on buckwheat phenolics and antioxidant activity","volume":"99","author":"Rosen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.09.064","article-title":"Effect of roasting time of buckwheat groats on the formation of Maillard reaction products and antioxidant capacity","volume":"196","author":"Wronkowska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8139","DOI":"10.1021\/jf1005935","article-title":"Thorough study of reactivity of various compound classes toward the Folin\u2013Ciocalteu reagent","volume":"58","author":"Everette","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.01.141","article-title":"Effect of infrared roasting on antioxidant activity, phenolic composition and Maillard reaction products of Tartary buckwheat varieties","volume":"285","author":"Bhinder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3229","DOI":"10.1002\/rcm.2720","article-title":"Effect of thermal processing on the flavonols rutin and quercetin","volume":"20","author":"Buchner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-014-9814-x","article-title":"Evaluation of aluminium complexation reaction for flavonoid content assay","volume":"7","author":"Pyrzynska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.3136\/fstr.25.613","article-title":"Heat-treatment of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) provides dehulled and gelatinized product with denatured rutinosidase","volume":"25","author":"Fujita","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2005.05.081","article-title":"Rutin content in buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) food materials and products","volume":"98","author":"Kreft","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.03.090","article-title":"Contribution to the study of rutin stability in the achenes of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum)","volume":"258","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.3136\/fstr.26.709","article-title":"Relationship between color change and rutin content in roasted Tartary buckwheat bran","volume":"26","author":"Noda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3524","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-019-03849-9","article-title":"Effect of steam parboiling and hot soaking treatments on milling yield, physical, physicochemical, bioactive and digestibility properties of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.)","volume":"56","author":"Roy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2010.09.076","article-title":"Antioxidant activity of commercial buckwheat flours and their free and bound phenolic compositions","volume":"125","author":"Inglett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.3746\/pnf.2017.22.4.345","article-title":"Enhancement of phenolic production and antioxidant activity from buckwheat leaves by subcritical water extraction","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prev. Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0308-8146(02)00228-5","article-title":"Composition and technological properties of the flour and bran from common and Tartary buckwheat","volume":"80","author":"Bonafaccia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"172","article-title":"A fragmentation database of soyasaponins by liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"34","author":"Son","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/18\/3284\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T04:25:19Z","timestamp":1789791919000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/18\/3284"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["foods15183284"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods15183284","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]}}}