{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:04:38Z","timestamp":1790183078713,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Foods"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines how Korean-language online discourse surrounding Korean temple food evolved across the COVID-19 transition, with particular attention to its changing meanings as a traditional plant-based food culture. A cleaned corpus of 24,353 online documents was analyzed across three three-year periods: pre-COVID-19 (1 January 2017\u201331 December 2019), COVID-19 (1 January 2020\u201331 December 2022), and post-endemic (1 June 2023\u201331 May 2026). Sixty core keywords were selected for each period and examined using frequency analysis, normalized weighted strength (NWS), degree and closeness centrality, semantic network analysis, CONCOR, and Jaccard similarity. Before COVID-19, discourse centered on vegetarianism, cooking, ingredients, dining, and traditional Buddhist food culture. During the pandemic, veganism, nature, health, and healing became more prominent, strengthening associations with plant-based and health-oriented eating. In the post-endemic period, this food identity remained visible while experiential, wellness-related, and media-driven meanings became more distinct. Jaccard similarity was 0.739 for the pre-COVID-19 versus COVID-19 comparison, 0.600 for COVID-19 versus post-endemic, and 0.519 for pre-COVID-19 versus post-endemic, indicating substantial continuity alongside greater compositional differentiation across more temporally distant comparisons and supporting an interpretation of gradual reconfiguration rather than abrupt change. Overall, Korean temple food has been recontextualized as a broader plant-based food culture in which its traditional Buddhist culinary foundations coexist with health, wellness, experiential consumption, and cultural meanings within contemporary online food discourse.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15193390","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T16:10:31Z","timestamp":1790179831000},"page":"3390","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Korean Temple Food as Plant-Based Food Culture: A Social Big Data Analysis of Changing Online Food Discourse Across the COVID-19 Transition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Changkyun","family":"Kang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Humanitas, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4120-0298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jangheon","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tourism Administration, Yong In University, Yongin-si 17092, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1177\/053901888027002005","article-title":"Food, self and identity","volume":"27","author":"Fischler","year":"1988","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Inf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.32.032702.131011","article-title":"The anthropology of food and eating","volume":"31","author":"Mintz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9523.00061","article-title":"Local development and heritage: Traditional food and cuisine as tourist attractions in rural areas","volume":"38","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sociol. Rural."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.08.041","article-title":"Medicinal efficacy of plants utilized as temple food in traditional Korean Buddhism","volume":"104","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1080\/15528014.2022.2047567","article-title":"Zen Buddhist nuns go global: Temple food in South Korea","volume":"26","author":"Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Cult. Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Bonn, M.A., and Cho, M. (2020). Sustainable and religion food consumer segmentation: Focusing on Korean temple food restaurants. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12073035"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1177\/1096348006286797","article-title":"Tourism and gastronomy: Gastronomy\u2019s influence on how tourists experience a destination","volume":"30","author":"Kivela","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Tour. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1080\/09669580802359293","article-title":"Food, place and authenticity: Local food and the sustainable tourism experience","volume":"17","author":"Sims","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Tour."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1002\/jtr.2070","article-title":"Memorable tourist experiences and place attachment when consuming local food","volume":"18","author":"Tsai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Tour. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"9","article-title":"How can temple food be developed as a wellness tourism product?: Focusing on the individuality and commonality of temple food offerings","volume":"48","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Tour. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1108\/BFJ-03-2025-0368","article-title":"Food consumption value, food satisfaction, tourists\u2019 happiness and behavioral intention toward Korean temple food","volume":"128","author":"Jeon","year":"2026","journal-title":"Br. Food J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3230","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-09-2021-1152","article-title":"Cocreation of gastronomy experience through cooking classes","volume":"34","author":"Yoo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2021.110752","article-title":"No Lockdown in the Kitchen: How the COVID-19 Pandemic Has Affected Food-Related Behaviours","volume":"150","author":"Grunert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Kallas, Z., Rahmani, D., and Gil, J.M. (2021). Trends in Food Preferences and Sustainable Behavior during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Evidence from Spanish Consumers. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10081898"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwiatkowska, I., Olszak, J., Formanowicz, P., and Formanowicz, D. (2023). Dietary Habits and Lifestyle, Including Cardiovascular Risk among Vegetarians and Omnivores during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Polish Population. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15020442"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"41","article-title":"A cross cultural study for sustainable temple food: Korea vs. Japan","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Asia-Pac. Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y.S. (2024). South Korean Buddhist temple food: Experiential cocreation through time and space with intertwined operand and operant resources. Plant-Based Food Consumption, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-98828-5.00002-4"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5720\/kjcn.2017.22.1.53","article-title":"A study on recognition, preference and popularization of temple food: Among local and foreign restaurant visitors","volume":"22","author":"Moon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Community Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"238","article-title":"The factor analysis of satisfaction with temple food, motivation for temple-stay and revisit intention to temple-stay in temple-stay tourism","volume":"20","author":"Shin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Culin. Sci. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"240","article-title":"An analysis of factors influencing on temple foods: Focusing on temple-stay participants","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Culin. Sci. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"134","article-title":"A segmentation study of temple food for the global convergence: Focusing on recognition and preference","volume":"22","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Culin. Sci. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"289","article-title":"An analysis of domestic research trends on temple food","volume":"71","author":"Ryu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Boj. Jinul\u2019s Thought"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1021\/bk-2019-1303.ch012","article-title":"Buddhist temple foods in Korea","volume":"Volume 1303","author":"Do","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemistry of Korean Foods and Beverages"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.25024\/kj.2008.48.4.147","article-title":"Buddhist temple food in South Korea: Interests and agency in the reinvention of tradition in the age of globalization","volume":"48","author":"Moon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Korea J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.38078\/ACF.2019.08.69.41","article-title":"The values of Korean Buddhist temple foods as cultural heritage and methods of their passing down","volume":"69","author":"Bae","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asian Comp. Folk."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1080\/1743873X.2013.767815","article-title":"Religious food as a tourism attraction: The roles of Buddhist temple food in Western tourist experience","volume":"8","author":"Son","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Herit. Tour."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1002\/jtr.2162","article-title":"Alternative healthy food choice for tourists: Developing Buddhist temple cuisine","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Tour. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.17086\/JTS.2015.39.8.217.235","article-title":"Temple stay participants\u2019 perception on temple food, satisfaction, and recommendation intention: Comparative study of Buddhist and non-Buddhist","volume":"39","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Tour. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"210","article-title":"An effect on experience satisfaction of temple foods, recommendation, and revisit intentions toward temple stay","volume":"21","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Culin. Sci. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"283","article-title":"The effect of the selected attributes of Korean temple food on the satisfaction and the repurchase intention: Focusing on attendee taking a temple food course","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hotel Resort"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"32","article-title":"Effects of experience economy on Korean temple food consumers\u2019 values, satisfaction, behavioral intention: Generational comparison","volume":"29","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Culin. Sci. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"21","article-title":"A study on the wellness, life satisfaction, subjective happiness, quality of life of the customer of healing food temple food: Focused on physical and spiritual wellness","volume":"9","author":"Jang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Northeast Asia Tour. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.17086\/JTS.2025.49.3.75.97","article-title":"Influence of customers\u2019 need for uniqueness on memorable temple food experiences, subjective well-being, and behavioral intentions: Moderating role of health consciousness","volume":"49","author":"Jeong","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Tour. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-06-2021-0709","article-title":"Understanding tourists\u2019 memorable local food experiences and their consequences: The moderating role of food destination, neophobia and previous tasting experience","volume":"34","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e25482","article-title":"The effect of food tourism experiences on tourists\u2019 subjective well-being","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1108\/TR-04-2022-0190","article-title":"Destination image: A consumer-based, big data-enabled approach","volume":"78","author":"Zhong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tour. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCTHR-02-2021-0037","article-title":"Insights from sentiment analysis to leverage local tourism business in restaurants","volume":"16","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Cult. Tour. Hosp. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1007\/s11301-023-00330-y","article-title":"Food and social media: A research stream analysis","volume":"74","author":"Teichert","year":"2024","journal-title":"Manag. Rev. Q."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tourman.2018.03.009","article-title":"Big data in tourism research: A literature review","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2014.10.013","article-title":"What can big data and text analytics tell us about hotel guest experience and satisfaction?","volume":"44","author":"Xiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"119","article-title":"User-generated content as a research mode in tourism and hospitality applications: Topics, methods, and software","volume":"24","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Mark. Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marine-Roig, E. (2019). Destination image analytics through traveller-generated content. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11123392"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1080\/10548408.2014.933154","article-title":"Hospitality and tourism online reviews: Recent trends and future directions","volume":"32","author":"Schuckert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Travel Tour. Mark."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tourman.2022.104707","article-title":"Restaurant survival prediction using customer-generated content: An aspect-based sentiment analysis of online reviews","volume":"96","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jang, J., Lee, E., and Jung, H. (2022). Analysis of Food Delivery Using Big Data: Comparative Study before and after COVID-19. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11193029"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pila\u0159, L., Pila\u0159ov\u00e1, L., Chalupov\u00e1, M., Kvasni\u010dkov\u00e1 Stanislavsk\u00e1, L., and Pitrov\u00e1, J. (2022). Food Bloggers on the Twitter Social Network: Yummy, Healthy, Homemade, and Vegan Food. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11182798"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, H., Yoon, H.H., and Cho, M. (2025). Exploring Consumer Perception of Food Insecurity Using Big Data. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14172965"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2020.06.015","article-title":"Tourism and COVID-19: Impacts and implications for advancing and resetting industry and research","volume":"117","author":"Sigala","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxac025","article-title":"Self-reported impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on diet-related behaviors and food security in 5 countries: Results from the International Food Policy Study 2020","volume":"152","author":"Acton","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castellini, G., Savarese, M., and Graffigna, G. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 outbreak in Italy on the sustainable food consumption intention from a \u201cone health\u201d perspective. Front. Nutr., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.622122"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2022.106082","article-title":"Veganism during the COVID-19 pandemic: Vegans\u2019 and nonvegans\u2019 perspectives","volume":"175","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"209","article-title":"Changes in domestic tourism perception before and after COVID-19: Focusing on social media big data analysis","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Serv. Ind. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Youn, J.Y., and Kim, S.W. (2024). Changes in social media big data on healing forests: A time-series analysis on the use behavior of healing forests before and after the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea. Forests, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/f15030477"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA) (2026, September 15). Promoting Recovery of Daily Life After Exiting the COVID-19 Crisis. (In Korean)."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, H.J. (2022). A new trend of tourism in the post-COVID-19 era: Big data analysis of online tours in Korea. Soc. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci11120574"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"100868","article-title":"Evolution of the impact of social media in hospitality: A bibliometric analysis","volume":"31","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Destin. Mark. Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joi.2011.01.008","article-title":"The semantic mapping of words and co-words in contexts","volume":"5","author":"Leydesdorff","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Informetr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2017.06.012","article-title":"Bibliometrics of social media research: A co-citation and co-word analysis","volume":"66","author":"Leung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-09-2019-0777","article-title":"Developing a comprehensive life cycle framework for social media research in hospitality and tourism: A bibliometric method 2002\u20132018","volume":"32","author":"Nusair","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s40558-022-00227-8","article-title":"Mapping tourism and hospitality research on information and communication technology: A bibliometric and scientific approach","volume":"24","author":"Sigala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inf. Technol. Tour."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, R., Wang, H., and Zhang, H. (2021). Chinese tourists\u2019 perception of the tourism image of North Korea based on text data from tourism websites. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132112205"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1007\/s43621-025-01431-2","article-title":"Visitor perceptions and emotional trends in Chinese sports parks based on textual network and sentiment analysis","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparing sets of patterns with the Jaccard index","volume":"22","author":"Fletcher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Australas. J. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joi.2010.10.002","article-title":"An approach for detecting, quantifying, and visualizing the evolution of a research field: A practical application to the Fuzzy Sets Theory field","volume":"5","author":"Cobo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Informetr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2017.03.031","article-title":"Assessing language discrepancies between travelers and online travel recommendation systems: Application of the Jaccard distance score to web data mining","volume":"123","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"2211","article-title":"The impact of social changes on MICE tourism management in the age of digitalization: A bibliometric review","volume":"19","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s40649-018-0058-6","article-title":"Tracking online topics over time: Understanding dynamic hashtag communities","volume":"5","author":"Wolf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Soc. Netw."}],"container-title":["Foods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/19\/3390\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T16:23:15Z","timestamp":1790180595000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2304-8158\/15\/19\/3390"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["foods15193390"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/foods15193390","relation":{},"ISSN":["2304-8158"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2304-8158","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]}}}