{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T02:24:41Z","timestamp":1792808681584,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":215,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydraulic fracturing is vital in recovering hydrocarbons from oil and gas reservoirs. It involves injecting a fluid under high pressure into reservoir rock. A significant part of fracturing fluids is the addition of polymers that become gels or gel-like under reservoir conditions. Polymers are employed as viscosifiers and friction reducers to provide proppants in fracturing fluids as a transport medium. There are numerous systems for fracturing fluids based on macromolecules. The employment of natural and man-made linear polymers, and also, to a lesser extent, synthetic hyperbranched polymers, as additives in fracturing fluids in the past one to two decades has shown great promise in enhancing the stability of fracturing fluids under various challenging reservoir conditions. Modern innovations demonstrate the importance of developing chemical structures and properties to improve performance. Key challenges include maintaining viscosity under reservoir conditions and achieving suitable shear-thinning behavior. The physical architecture of macromolecules and novel crosslinking processes are essential in addressing these issues. The effect of macromolecule interactions on reservoir conditions is very critical in regard to efficient fluid qualities and successful fracturing operations. In future, there is the potential for ongoing studies to produce specialized macromolecular solutions for increased efficiency and sustainability in oil and gas applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10050338","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T06:44:31Z","timestamp":1715841871000},"page":"338","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Chemical and Physical Architecture of Macromolecular Gels for Fracturing Fluid Applications in the Oil and Gas Industry; Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Majad","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen Technologies and Energy Storage (IRC-HTCM), King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Refining and Advanced Chemicals (IRC-CRAC), King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"243","article-title":"A Critical Review of Hydraulic-Fracturing Fluids for Moderate-to Ultralow-Permeability Formations over the Last Decade","volume":"29","year":"2014","journal-title":"SPE Prod. 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