{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T11:10:34Z","timestamp":1789902634242,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":293,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]],"date-time":"2025-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Regulatory Research Management Agency for SMRs (RMAS)","award":["RS-2024-00509653"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00509653"]}]},{"name":"Chung-Ang University Research Grants","award":["RS-2024-00509653"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00509653"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Polymer gel-based triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have emerged as versatile platforms for self-powered sensing due to their inherent softness, stretchability, and tunable conductivity. This review comprehensively explores the roles of polymer gels in TENG architecture, including their function as triboelectric layers, electrodes, and conductive matrices. We analyze four operational modes\u2014vertical contact-separation, lateral-sliding, single-electrode, and freestanding configurations\u2014alongside key performance metrics. Recent studies have reported output voltages of up to 545 V, short-circuit currents of 48.7 \u03bcA, and power densities exceeding 120 mW\/m2, demonstrating the high efficiency of gel-based TENGs. Gel materials are classified by network structure (single-, double-, and multi-network), matrix composition (hydrogels, aerogels, and ionic gels), and dielectric medium. Strategies to enhance conductivity using ionic salts, conductive polymers, and nanomaterials are discussed in relation to triboelectric output and sensing sensitivity. Morphological features such as surface roughness, porosity, and micro\/nano-patterning are examined for their impact on charge generation. Application-focused sections detail the integration of gel-based TENGs in health monitoring (e.g., sweat, glucose, respiratory, and tremor sensing), environmental sensing (e.g., humidity, fire, marine, and gas detection), and tactile interfaces (e.g., e-skin and wearable electronics). Finally, we address current challenges, including mechanical durability, dehydration, and system integration, and outline future directions involving self-healing gels, hybrid architectures, and AI-assisted sensing. This review expands the subject area by synthesizing recent advances and offering a strategic roadmap for developing intelligent, sustainable, and multifunctional TENG-based sensing technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11090737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T11:51:43Z","timestamp":1757937103000},"page":"737","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Polymer Gel-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators: Conductivity and Morphology Engineering for Advanced Sensing Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1933-293X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabuj Chandra","family":"Sutradhar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Materials Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Chungju-si 27478, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nipa","family":"Banik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Materials Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Chungju-si 27478, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6382-2085","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Mizanur","family":"Rahman Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Green Energy Systems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1797-2565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jae-Ho","family":"Jeong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2024.109335","article-title":"Advanced Triboelectric Materials for Self-Powered Gas Sensing Systems","volume":"122","author":"Hao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2022.107509","article-title":"Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene\/Hydrogel-Based Liquid-Solid Triboelectric Nanogenerator Driven Self-Powered Mxene-Based Sensor System for Marine Environmental Monitoring","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2023.108989","article-title":"Smart Battery-Free and Wireless Bioelectronic Platform Based on a Nature-Skin-Derived Organohydrogel for Chronic Wound Diagnosis, Assessment, and Accelerated Healing","volume":"118","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106008","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202106008","article-title":"Hydrogels as Soft Ionic Conductors in Flexible and Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenerators","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. 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